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The category of pointed sets and basepoint-preserving functions is a pointed category. It is equivalent to the category of partial functions by adjoining or deleting the basepoint. It is not isomorphic to the category of all actual sets and partial functions: there are many distinct singleton zero objects, whereas the empty set is the sole zero object in that category.

In the category of complete join-semilattices, hom-sets have pointwise join as addition and the constant-bottom map as zero, making it a semi-additive category. For any family $A_i$, the cartesian product with coordinatewise joins is also its coproduct. The injections put an element in one coordinate and bottom in all others. A family of maps $f_i:A_i\to B$ extends uniquely by $(a_i)\mapsto {\bigvee }_i{f}_i(a_i)$, since each tuple is the join of its coordinate injections. Thus all set-indexed canonical product-coproduct comparisons are invertible. The two-element chain has distinct identity and zero morphisms, so this category is not trivial and not additive.

Ordinary hydrogen-rich cataclysmic variables occur on both sides of a cataclysmic-variable period gap at approximately two to three hours, with a cataclysmic-variable period minimum near 82 minutes. Selection effects change the observed proportions. Knigge, Baraffe and Patterson's donor-based evolutionary study summarizes these empirical landmarks.

Suppose every cap set in ${\mathbb{F}}_3^n$ has cardinality at most $K{\theta }^n$, with $K$ independent of $n$. Applying this to the $k$-fold Cartesian product of a fixed cap set $A$ gives $|A{|}^k\le K{\theta }^{nk}$. Taking $k$th roots and letting $k$ tend to infinity proves $|A|\le {\theta }^n$. More generally this argument applies to any class of finite objects closed under products with multiplicative size and additive dimension.

The cardinal numbers defined by ${\beth }_0={\aleph }_0$, ${\beth }_{\alpha +1}=2^{{\beth }_{\alpha }}$, and ${\beth }_{\lambda }={\sup }_{\alpha <\lambda }{\beth }_{\alpha }$ at limit ordinals are the beth numbers. In particular ${\beth }_1=|\mathcal{P}(\omega )|$, the cardinality of the continuum. This notation distinguishes iterated power sets from the enumeration by Aleph numbers of well-orderable infinite cardinal numbers.

If $B^{\rho \mu \nu }=-B^{\mu \rho \nu }$, commuting partial derivatives gives ${\partial }_{\mu }{\partial }_{\rho }{B}^{\rho \mu \nu }=0$. Such an improvement preserves conservation of a stress-energy tensor and changes integrated charges only by a spatial boundary term. The Belinfante-Rosenfeld stress-energy tensor is obtained through this type of improvement.

For signature $(+,-,-,-)$, translation invariance of the Maxwell Lagrangian gives this tensor. It is generally neither symmetric nor gauge invariant. The antisymmetric superpotential improvement $-{\partial }_{\rho }(F^{\rho \mu }{A}^{\nu })$ produces, on the source-free equations of motion, the symmetric electromagnetic stress-energy tensor ${\Theta }^{\mu \nu }=-F^{\mu \rho }{F}^{\nu }{}_{\rho }+{\eta }^{\mu \nu }{F}^2/4$, which is traceless in four spacetime dimensions.

For the free real scalar field with signature $(+,-,-,-)$,The canonical stress-energy tensor is $T^{\mu \nu }={\partial }^{\mu }\varphi {\partial }^{\nu }\varphi -{\eta }^{\mu \nu }\mathcal{L}$. Its divergence vanishes by the Klein-Gordon equation, giving constant integrated charges when integrals and boundary flux are well behaved. The minus sign in contravariant spatial momentum is from ${\partial }^i=-{\partial }_i$; lower-index spatial charges have the opposite sign. A plane wave $\cos (Et-\mathbf{k}\cdot \mathbf{x})$ has momentum density pointing along $\mathbf{k}$.

For a nonnegative bounded weak subsolution and $\beta >1$, test with ${\eta }^2(u+\epsilon {)}^{\beta -1}$. Uniform ellipticity and Cauchy-Schwarz inequality give $\int |Du{|}^2{u}^{\beta -2}{\eta }^2\le 4{\Lambda }_{\ast }^2/[{\lambda }^2(\beta -1{)}^2]\int u^{\beta }|D\eta {|}^2$, with ${\Lambda }_{\ast }$ an operator norm bound for the coefficient matrix. The Sobolev chain rule and $\epsilon \downarrow 0$ justify fractional powers and zero values. An entrywise bound $\Lambda$ yields ${\Lambda }_{\ast }\le n\Lambda$.

The Cabibbo angle ${\theta }_C$ describes the real two-generation quark mixing rotationThus $V_{ud}=V_{cs}=\cos {\theta }_C$, $V_{us}=\sin {\theta }_C$ and $V_{cd}=-\sin {\theta }_C$. Nicola Cabibbo formulated the mixing of weak charged current couplings before the three-generation mechanism of CP violation; this foundational contribution is distinct from the later extension.^[ref]

For a Normal element of a C-star algebra $a$ in a unital C-star algebra, the Commutative Gelfand--Naimark theorem identifies $C(\sigma (a))$ isometrically with the closed unital algebra generated by $a$ and $a^{\ast }$. The coordinate function maps to $a$, defining $f(a)$ for every continuous $f$ on the spectrum of an element.

If $A$ is a closed C-star algebra inside a unital C-star algebra $B$ and the two algebras share their identity, an element of $A$ is invertible in $A$ exactly when it is invertible in $B$. Consequently its spectrum of an element does not depend on which of these two algebras is used.

A C-star homomorphism is a complex linear multiplicative map between C-star algebras that preserves the involution. Such maps are contractive; an injective one is an isometry.

With $c=Ae$ and $C=\mathrm{diag}(c)$, a Runge-Kutta method has order at least four exactly when the eight Butcher order conditionshold; powers of $c$ are componentwise. These conditions match the numerical and exact coefficients indexed by rooted trees through order four. Matching the scalar Dahlquist test equation alone is insufficient to check the nonlinear Butcher order conditions.

A Richardson number compares gravitational stratification with inertial or shear effects. Its precise form depends on the characteristic scales or local gradients being compared.

The loop momentum integral with two massive quantum field theory propagators isIts momentum dependence gives a one-loop self-energy in cubic scalar field theory and a quartic effective vertex in quartic scalar field theory.

A filtration $({\mathcal{F}}_t)$ is a Brownian filtration for $B$ when $B$ is an adapted process and each future increment $B_t-B_s$ is independent of ${\mathcal{F}}_s$. The natural filtration of a Brownian motion has this property. Arbitrary enlargement by future information need not preserve it.

For every fixed mesh $1/k$, independent increments with the normal distribution imply increments of absolute value greater than one occur infinitely often almost surely, by the second Borel-Cantelli lemma. A countable intersection over $k$ contradicts uniform continuity on $[0,\infty )$.

For three-dimensional Brownian motion, every radius $r>0$ and every initial point satisfyIf the initial point is on one of the spheres, it is already a hit at time zero. If it is inside a lattice-centered open ball, its eventual exit hits that sphere. Otherwise choose at each integer time a nearest lattice center. The current displacement from it has norm at most $\sqrt{3}/2$, so the multivariate normal distribution of the next unit increment gives a uniform positive chance of entering its radius-$r/2$ open ball. The geometric tail bound from a uniform escape probability makes eventual entry certain, and continuity forces a boundary crossing. This periodic-family recurrence does not contradict the Brownian sphere-hitting probability in dimension three for one fixed sphere.

In a dense graph with many common neighbours for every pair of vertices, choose disjoint random small sets. A set is good if few vertices have no neighbour in it. The Markov inequality controls the number of bad sets, and random sampling makes almost every pair of good sets adjacent. Add unused common neighbours to connect each set and to repair the remaining missing adjacencies. If the number of used vertices stays below every common-neighbour count, this constructs disjoint branch sets of a graph minor representing a large complete graph.