Present value (PV) is a financial concept that refers to the current worth of a sum of money or stream of cash flows that will be received or paid in the future, discounted back to the present using a specific interest rate. The idea behind present value is that a dollar today is worth more than a dollar in the future due to the potential earning capacity of money, which is often referred to as the time value of money.

Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is an important hydrodynamic parameter in pump operation, particularly in ensuring that a pump operates efficiently and does not cavitate. It is a measure of the pressure available at the suction side of the pump compared to the vapor pressure of the liquid being pumped. NPSH is typically expressed in terms of head (usually in meters or feet).

The Veronese surface is a well-known example in algebraic geometry, and it is often studied in relation to the projective geometry of higher-dimensional spaces. Specifically, it is defined as a two-dimensional algebraic surface that can be embedded in projective space. The Veronese surface can be constructed by considering the image of the projective plane under the Veronese embedding.

Alexander Anderson is a mathematician known primarily for his work in the field of combinatorial mathematics and is particularly notable for his contributions to the theory of algorithms and computational mathematics. He has published research on topics such as sorting algorithms and the analysis of data structures, and his work often explores the connections between mathematics and computer science.

Andrei Roiter is a Russian-born artist known for his work in painting, drawing, and conceptual art. He is recognized for his unique blend of styles and techniques, often incorporating elements of surrealism, abstraction, and symbolic imagery. Roiter's art typically explores themes such as identity, memory, and the human experience. He has exhibited his work in various galleries and art institutions worldwide.

Abbas Wasim Efendi is a title that likely refers to a historical figure or scholar from the Ottoman Empire, where "Efendi" is an honorific title commonly used in Turkish-speaking areas. However, without further specific context, it's challenging to provide more detailed information.

On The Busy Beaver Challenge: bbchallenge.org/68329601

Non formal proof with a program March 2023: www.sligocki.com/2023/03/13/skelet-1-infinite.html Awesome article that describes the proof procedure.

Formal proof August 2023: discuss.bbchallenge.org/t/skelet-1-is-a-translated-cycler-coq-agrees/166

The proof uses Turing machine acceleration to show that Skelet machine #1 is a Translated cycler Turing machine with humongous cycle paramters:

The Busy beaver scale allows us to gauge the difficulty of proving certain (yet unproven!) mathematical conjectures!

To to this, people have reduced certain mathematical problems to deciding the halting problem of a specific Turing machine.

A good example is perhaps the Goldbach's conjecture. We just make a Turing machine that successively checks for each even number of it is a sum of two primes by naively looping down and trying every possible pair. Let the machine halt if the check fails. So this machine halts iff the Goldbach's conjecture is false! See also Conjecture reduction to a halting problem.

Therefore, if we were able to compute $BB(n)$, we would be able to prove those conjectures automatically, by letting the machine run up to $BB(n)$, and if it hadn't halted by then, we would know that it would never halt.

Of course, in practice, $BB$ is generally uncomputable, so we will never know it. And furthermore, even if it were computable, it would take a lot longer than the age of the universe to compute any of it, so it would be useless.

However, philosophically speaking at least, the number of states of the equivalent Turing machine gives us a philosophical idea of the complexity of the problem.

The busy beaver scale is likely mostly useless, since we are able to prove that many non-trivial Turing machines do halt, often by reducing problems to simpler known cases. But still, it is cute.

But maybe, just maybe, reduction to Turing machine form could be useful. E.g. The Busy Beaver Challenge and other attempts to solve BB(5) have come up with large number of automated (usually parametrized up to a certain threshold) Turing machine decider programs that automatically determine if certain (often large numbers of) Turing machines run forever.

So it it not impossible that after some reduction to a standard Turing machine form, some conjecture just gets automatically brute-forced by one of the deciders, this is a path to

If you can reduce a mathematical problem to the Halting problem of a specific turing machine, as in the case of a few machines of the Busy beaver scale, then using Turing machine deciders could serve as a method of automated theorem proving.

That feels like it could be an elegant proof method, as you reduce your problem to one of the most well studied representations that exists: a Turing machine.

However it also appears that certain problems cannot be reduced to a halting problem... OMG life sucks (or is awesome?): Section "Turing machine that halts if and only if Collatz conjecture is false".

bbchallenge.org/story#what-is-known-about-bb lists some (all?) cool examples,

wiki.bbchallenge.org/wiki/Cryptids contains a larger list. In June 2024 it was discovered that BB(6) is hard.

mathoverflow.net/questions/309044/is-there-a-known-turing-machine-which-halts-if-and-only-if-the-collatz-conjectur suggests one does not exist. Amazing.

Intuitively we see that the situation is fundamentally different from the Turing machine that halts if and only if the Goldbach conjecture is false because for Collatz the counter example must go off into infinity, while in Goldbach conjecture we can finitely check any failures.

Amazing.

A problem that has more than two possible yes/no outputs.

It is therefore a generalization of a decision problem.