MODTRAN, which stands for MODerate Resolution TRANsmission, is a computer program developed to model the transmission of electromagnetic radiation through the Earth's atmosphere. It is commonly used in atmospheric science, remote sensing, and environmental studies to simulate how light interacts with atmospheric gases, aerosols, and clouds. MODTRAN is particularly focused on the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet portions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

In optics, opacity refers to the property of a material that prevents light from passing through it. An opaque material does not allow any light transmission, making it impossible to see through. This is in contrast to transparent materials, which allow most light to pass, and translucent materials, which allow some light to pass but scatter it in different directions. Opacity is typically measured in terms of the percentage of light that is absorbed or reflected by a material versus the percentage that is transmitted.

Radiative transfer is the process by which energy, in the form of electromagnetic radiation, is transmitted through a medium. This process is governed by the interaction of radiation with matter, which can absorb, emit, and scatter the radiation. Radiative transfer is fundamental in various fields, including astrophysics, climate science, meteorology, remote sensing, and optical engineering.

A split-ring resonator (SRR) is a type of metamaterial structure that consists of a conductive ring with a small gap (or split) in it. This design allows the SRR to exhibit unique electromagnetic properties, particularly in the microwave and terahertz frequency ranges. ### Key Characteristics and Functions: 1. **Resonance**: The SRR can resonate at specific frequencies, depending on its physical dimensions and the material properties.

IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The journal focuses on research articles and reviews related to electron devices, semiconductor devices, and related technologies. It covers a wide range of topics including, but not limited to: - Device physics and modeling - Fabrication technologies - Reliability and failure analysis - Emerging device concepts (e.g.

The **International Journal of High Speed Electronics and Systems** is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes research on various aspects of high-speed electronics and their applications in systems.

External beam radiotherapy (EBRT) is a method of delivering radiation treatment to cancer patients. It involves directing high-energy beams of radiation from outside the body towards the tumor. The purpose of EBRT is to destroy cancer cells or inhibit their growth while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissue.

The Brain Imaging Data Structure (BIDS) is a standardized format for organizing and sharing neuroimaging data. Developed to facilitate the sharing and analysis of brain imaging datasets, BIDS standardizes how information is structured, labeled, and stored. This helps researchers to easily collaborate and reuse data across different studies and institutions.

Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) is a surface-sensitive analytical technique used primarily for the characterization of materials. It is based on the Auger effect, which describes the process by which an electron is emitted from an atom as a result of an inner-shell electron transition. This technique is particularly useful for studying the elemental composition and electronic states of surfaces.

Calculated Industries is a company specializing in tools and solutions for construction, engineering, and other industries that require precise measurements and calculations. Founded in 1978, the company is known for its innovative products, including calculators specifically designed for construction, trades, and other professional applications. Their product line typically includes construction calculators, digital measuring tools, and software solutions that help professionals in planning and executing projects more accurately and efficiently.

Heathkit was a brand known for its electronic kits, which were popular from the 1940s through the 1990s. The company, officially known as Heath Company, was founded in 1947 by Everett Heath. Heathkit gained popularity for selling a variety of do-it-yourself kits for electronic devices, including radios, amplifiers, test equipment, and even computers.

Victor 3900 refers to a specific model of advanced gas chromatograph often used in scientific and industrial applications for analyzing the composition of chemical mixtures. Gas chromatography is a technique that separates and analyzes compounds that can be vaporized without decomposition.

Neuronal galvanotropism refers to the phenomenon where neurons exhibit directional growth or movement in response to an electric field. This process is a form of galvanotaxis, a broader term that applies to the movement of various cell types towards or away from an electric current. In the context of neurons, studies have shown that electric fields can influence the orientation and growth of neuronal processes, such as axons and dendrites.

Anode break excitation (ABE) is a technique used in electrical engineering, specifically in the control of synchronous machines and in the operation of certain types of thyristor-based circuits. ABE involves a temporary interruption of the anode current in thyristors (or similar devices) to control the timing and sequence of the electrical excitation applied to the machine, allowing for smoother operation and better control of its performance.

The cardiac transient outward potassium current, often abbreviated as I_to, is a significant ionic current that plays a critical role in the electrical activity of cardiac myocytes (heart muscle cells). This current is primarily characterized by its transient nature, meaning that it is activated and deactivated quickly during the action potential of cardiac cells. ### Key Features of I_to: 1. **Ion Movement**: I_to primarily involves the movement of potassium ions (K+) out of the cardiac cells.

Facial electromyography (EMG) is a diagnostic and research technique used to measure the electrical activity of facial muscles. It involves the use of electrodes placed on the skin surface over specific muscles to detect electrical signals generated by muscle contractions. This method is often employed in various fields such as psychology, neurology, and rehabilitation to study muscle function, facial expressions, and emotional responses.

Electrocorticography (ECoG) is a neurosurgical technique used to measure the electrical activity of the brain. It involves placing electrodes directly on the surface of the cerebral cortex, allowing for high-resolution recordings of neural signals. This technique is often used in clinical contexts, particularly in the evaluation and treatment of epilepsy, as it provides more precise information about brain function compared to non-invasive methods like electroencephalography (EEG).

Genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) are advanced tools used in neuroscience to measure changes in membrane potential across the cell membranes of neurons and other types of cells. Unlike traditional methods that often rely on electrodes or dyes that require external application, GEVIs are genetically encoded proteins that can be expressed within living cells. ### Key Features of GEVIs: 1. **Genetic Encoding**: GEVIs are typically based on fluorescent protein technology.

The Lippmann electrometer is a type of sensitive instrument used to measure electric potential (voltage). It is based on the principle of measuring the height of a liquid column in a capillary tube, where the liquid is typically mercury. The device is named after the physicist Walter Lippmann. The basic working principle involves the following steps: 1. **Mercury Column**: The Lippmann electrometer uses a column of mercury contained in a glass tube.

Nav1.4, also known as the voltage-gated sodium channel type IV alpha subunit, is a protein that is encoded by the **SCN4A** gene in humans. It is primarily expressed in skeletal muscle and plays a critical role in the generation and propagation of action potentials in muscle fibers. Here are some key points about Nav1.4: 1. **Function**: Nav1.