Gastric outlet obstruction impedes passage from the stomach toward the duodenum. It is an anatomical-functional description with multiple possible causes. Its consequences follow from retained upstream contents and altered emptying, rather than proving one specific lesion.

The pylorus is the distal stomach region controlling passage toward the duodenum. Its sphincteric function contributes to regulated emptying. Narrowing here can impede flow even if the remainder of the stomach retains contractile activity.

A probability plot compares order statistics with plotting positions or model quantiles to diagnose whether a proposed probability distribution describes data. If the model can be transformed into a linear identity $T(F(x))=a+bS(x)$, plot $T(i/(n+1))$ against $S(X_{(i)})$. Approximate linearity supports that model's shape; systematic curvature suggests a mismatch.

The plotting position $i/(n+1)$ comes from the exact mean of the $i$th uniform order statistic, by the probability integral transform. It does not assert equality between the expectation of a nonlinear transformation and that transformation of the expectation. Fitted slope and intercept can estimate model parameters, but the visual plot alone is not a calibrated hypothesis test.

The parameter space of a statistical model is the set of allowed statistical parameter values indexing its probability distributions. For an exponential distribution parametrized by its mean, $\Theta =(0,\infty )$; for a Bernoulli distribution, $\Theta =[0,1]$. Intersecting a confidence interval with the known parameter space cannot remove the true statistical parameter and therefore preserves its coverage probability.

A finite VC dimension gives simultaneous control of empirical misclassification risk for every member of a hypothesis class. Sufficient independent sample size is $A{\eta }^{-2}(v\log (2/\eta )+\log (2/\delta ))$. The displayed event implies an empirical risk minimization rule has misclassification risk at most ${\inf }_{h}R(h)+2\eta$, including for unrealizable labels.^[ref]

A concept class $C$ is weakly PAC learnable using a hypothesis class $H$ when a learning procedure has a fixed edge $\gamma >0$ such that, for every target in $C$, every input probability distribution, and every confidence parameter $\delta$, sufficiently many independent target-labelled examples let it return an $h\in H$ satisfying the displayed bound with probability at least $1-\delta$. The example bound must be polynomial in $1/\delta$ under this definition. Computational efficiency is an additional requirement when explicitly imposed. This distribution-wide guarantee should be distinguished from merely obtaining an advantage on one finite training sample.

Randomized response masks which of two complementary binary questions a person answered. Suppose the sensitive property has probability $p$, and independently the direct question is selected with known probability $x$, while the complementary question is selected otherwise. Truthful answers then have yes probability $q=xp+(1-x)(1-p)$. The investigator observes only the answer, preserving uncertainty about an individual's status while permitting population statistical estimation when $x\ne 1/2$.

For $n$ independent responses, $Y\sim \mathrm{Bin}(n,q)$, and the affine estimator $\tilde{p}=(Y/n-1+x)/(2x-1)$ is an unbiased estimator. Its variance is $q(1-q)/[n(2x-1{)}^2]$, by the mean and variance of a binomial distribution. Equivalently the variance is $p(1-p)/n+x(1-x)/[n(2x-1{)}^2]$, exposing the extra sampling uncertainty caused by the masking. At $x=1/2$, all $p$ produce $q=1/2$ and identifiability fails. At $x=0$ or $1$, there is no masking and the extra variance vanishes.

Because $0\le p\le 1$, maximum likelihood estimation gives $\hat{p}=\min (1,\max (0,\tilde{p}))$. This follows by maximizing the binomial likelihood over the interval $q\in [\min (x,1-x),\max (x,1-x)]$ and then inverting its monotone affine parametrization. Clipping can introduce bias: for $n=1$, $x=3/4$ and $p=0$, the clipped estimate has mean $1/4$.

For ${\eta }_{tt}+{\lambda }^2{\eta }_{xxxx}=0$ with Lorentzian displacement $ϵa/[\pi (x^2+{ϵ}^2)]$ and zero initial velocity, the Fourier transform is $a{e}^{-ϵ|k|}\cos (\lambda k^{2}t)$. Along a fixed ray $x=Vt$, the two phases $Vk\pm \lambda k^2$ have saddles $k=\mp V/(2\lambda )$ and curvatures $\pm 2\lambda$. Applying stationary phase and adding the conjugate contributions gives the displayed leading term. The finite pulse width supplies the attenuation factor; it may be dropped only if $ϵ|V|/\lambda \ll 1$. The expansion is an additive $o(t^{-1/2})$ statement, which remains meaningful at zeros of the leading cosine.

The stationary endpoint contributes $c{e}^{3i\pi /4}\sqrt{\pi }/(4x^{3/2})$ by method of steepest descent along $t=e^{i\pi /4}r$. Its ordinary $x^{-1/2}$ term vanishes because $a(0)=0$. A nonstationary upper endpoint with $a(b)\ne 0$ contributes $a(b)e^{ix{b}^2}/(2ibx)$ and therefore dominates the stationary contribution. The stationary phase method must retain both this boundary term and the first nonzero local-amplitude term.

A configuration of a system at one moment. In a transition system, a state is an element of its state space $S$, and a transition relation specifies permitted changes of state.

An open star-shaped set: there is a point $p$ such that every line segment from $p$ to another point of the set lies entirely in the set. In the complex plane, this geometric condition supplies the star-domain form of the Cauchy integral theorem. The positive-axis slit plane is star-shaped about $-1$, even though it is not convex.

Suppose each subtree of a binary expression tree is evaluated completely before its sibling, leaves one result on an operand stack, and is not spilled or interleaved. If the child depths are $p,q$, evaluating the first child needs $p$ slots and keeping its result while evaluating the second needs $1+q$. Reversing the order gives $\max (q,1+p)$. If either order preserves the expression's meaning, the minimum is $\max (p,q)$ when $p\ne q$ and $p+1$ when $p=q$. For example, if $p>q$, integrality gives $p\ge q+1$, so evaluating the deeper child first attains the lower bound $p$. If $p=q$, the second child needs its own $p$ slots plus one saved result regardless of order. Induction over the binary expression tree proves optimality in this evaluation model.

For a noncommutative operator, an instruction swapping the top two stack entries or a reverse-operand opcode permits the same ordering while preserving operand positions. Reordering still requires absence of order-sensitive side effects. Reassociation and interleaving are separate transformations and are not part of this optimality claim.

Code whose operand-producing instructions precede the instruction that consumes those operands. A stack machine can translate a binary program expression by producing its left operand, producing its right operand, and then applying the operation to the two top values.

Splenic white pulp is the lymphocyte-rich compartment of the spleen organized around arterial branches. Its spatial arrangement brings immune cells into contact with blood-borne material. It is distinct from the red-pulp architecture involved in handling circulating blood cells.

Spinal cord infarction is death of spinal-cord tissue caused by inadequate blood supply. Its effects depend on the affected vascular territory and the motor, sensory and autonomic pathways located there.

This distinguishes an ischemic lesion from haematomyelia, which is bleeding within the cord. Similar neurological findings can arise through different vascular mechanisms.^[ref]

Bleeding within the substance of the spinal cord, distinguished from bleeding into surrounding spaces.

An acute phase of depressed reflex activity below severe spinal cord injury; it does not establish permanent destruction of all corresponding reflex circuits.

For a finite square matrix, powers tend to zero exactly when every eigenvalue has modulus less than one. In a complex Jordan normal form, the entries of a block power are sums of factors $\left(\genfrac{}{}{0ex}{}{k}{j}\right){\lambda }^{k-j}$, which tend to zero when $|\lambda |<1$; a zero-eigenvalue block becomes zero after finitely many powers. Conversely, an eigenvector gives $G^{k}v={\lambda }^{k}v$, so convergence to zero excludes $|\lambda |\ge 1$. This criterion underlies the convergence theorem for a stationary iterative method for a linear system.

Alcoholic extraction uses an alcohol-containing solvent, commonly ethanol mixed with water, to transfer soluble components from a material into a liquid phase. The composition extracted depends on solvent composition, solute interactions and the starting matrix. It is a form of solvent extraction, not a reaction that necessarily creates alcohol. Partitioning and mass transfer distinguish the equilibrium preference for a solute from the rate at which it leaves a particle or tissue. An extracted mixture can contain multiple compounds, so the extraction solvent alone does not establish purity or identity.

A named software object instantiated once in the scope of its definition. A top-level Scala object can implement the singleton pattern. Nested object definitions can have different instances for different enclosing instances, so the relevant scope matters.