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A good reduction in characteristic $p$ is supersingular when its geometric $p$-torsion is trivial, equivalently its formal group of an elliptic curve has height two. Good inert primes of a CM elliptic curve are supersingular. The ordinary bounded-measure and torsion-Selmer formulation must then be modified, for instance using signed local conditions in the cyclotomic tower.

An integral Weierstrass equation of an elliptic curve with unit elliptic-curve discriminant defines a smooth proper elliptic curve over the valuation ring. Properness identifies points over the local field with integral sections. The group law, constructed by adding degree-zero divisor classes, is a morphism over the valuation ring, and base change to the residue field preserves it. Hence reducing primitive projective coordinates is a group homomorphism, including exceptional affine addition cases.

Normalize the Fubini-Study form so that a complex projective line has symplectic area $\pi$. The displayed map takes the unit symplectic ball in ${\mathbb{C}}^n$ diffeomorphically onto the complement of the last-coordinate hyperplane. Its lift to the unit sphere has last coordinate positive real, so that coordinate contributes zero to the pulled-back standard symplectic form. The map is therefore a symplectomorphism.

On a compact Hermitian manifold without boundary, this operator is the inverse of the Dolbeault Laplacian on the orthogonal complement of its harmonic forms and is zero on the harmonic space. Elliptic theory gives ${\Delta }_{\bar{\partial }}G=G{\Delta }_{\bar{\partial }}=I-H$, with $H$ the harmonic projection, and ensures that $G$ sends smooth forms to smooth forms. It commutes with $\bar{\partial }$ and ${\bar{\partial }}^{\ast }$; their commutation with the Laplacian and orthogonality to its kernel give this by uniqueness of the inverse. If $\eta$ is $\bar{\partial }$-exact, then $\eta =\bar{\partial }{\bar{\partial }}^{\ast }G\eta$. On a Kähler manifold, the same operator serves the holomorphic Laplacian because ${\Delta }_{\partial }={\Delta }_{\bar{\partial }}$.

In frames with $e^{(\beta )}=g_{\alpha \beta }{e}^{(\alpha )}$ and input-index connection matrices, the Chern connection has ${\theta }_{\beta }-g_{\alpha \beta }{\theta }_{\alpha }{g}_{\alpha \beta }^{-1}={\sigma }_{\alpha \beta }$. These holomorphic one-forms, interpreted in the beta frame, satisfy the transported Čech cocycle condition because $g_{\alpha \gamma }=g_{\beta \gamma }{g}_{\alpha \beta }$. Local primitives of curvature differ by this cocycle. A holomorphic frame change $e_{\alpha }^{\prime }=u_{\alpha }{e}_{\alpha }$ adds the Čech coboundary of $u_{\alpha }^{-1}\partial u_{\alpha }$, so the resulting curvature Dolbeault class is intrinsic.

For odd nonzero $D$, the intrinsic bad primes of $y^2=x^3-D^{2}x$ are exactly the displayed set. If $v_p(D)=2k$, the change $x=p^{2k}X$, $y=p^{3k}Y$ removes that even valuation from the parameter and gives unit discriminant at odd $p$. If the valuation is odd, after the same removal the discriminant valuation is six. Discriminant valuations of isomorphic Weierstrass models differ by multiples of twelve, so no integral model has unit discriminant. At two the original discriminant valuation is also six. Thus primes dividing a nonminimal displayed discriminant need not be intrinsic bad primes: $E_9$ is isomorphic to $E_1$ and has good reduction at three.

Discriminants of isomorphic Weierstrass equations of an elliptic curve differ by a twelfth power of the scale parameter, so their valuations differ by a multiple of twelve. An integral model with good reduction has discriminant valuation zero. Thus a displayed integral model with discriminant valuation not divisible by twelve proves intrinsic bad reduction. More generally, a displayed discriminant valuation between zero and eleven is already minimal, since any smaller integral-model valuation would be nonnegative and differ by twelve. Positive valuations divisible by twelve alone do not establish bad reduction; rescaling may remove them.

Let Roche-lobe overflow transfer mass conservatively within a circular binary while a separate fast wind escapes with the donor's specific orbital angular momentum. Then ${\dot{M}}_d=\dot{M}-{\dot{M}}_a$ and $\dot{a}/a=-\dot{M}/M+2{\dot{M}}_a(1/M_d-1/M_a)$. Differentiating the donor and Roche lobe radii and enforcing contact gives the displayed rate. It is positive and stabilizing when the wind drives overfill and $6q<5-3n$. When the latter inequality is reversed, transfer increases the overfill, producing runaway rather than a steady negative-transfer solution.

A weight basis of a Lie algebra representation is a basis consisting of weight vectors for a chosen Cartan subalgebra. When the Cartan action is diagonalizable, choose a basis separately in every weight space and combine them. This makes weight multiplicities directly visible and gives diagonal matrices for Cartan elements.

Multiply the Weyl character formula by the generating series of the Kostant partition function. In each numerator summand, the coefficient of $e^{\mu }$ occurs when $\nu =w(\lambda +\rho )-(\mu +\rho )$. Summing those coefficients with the Weyl group signs proves the displayed weight multiplicity formula. Although $\rho$ need not itself be an integral group weight, $w\rho -\rho$ is in the root lattice, so each partition-function argument is an integral weight.

The group ring of a weight lattice $P$ consists of finite sums ${\sum }_{\lambda }{a}_{\lambda }e(\lambda )$ with integer coefficients, where $e(\lambda )e(\mu )=e(\lambda +\mu )$. A finite-dimensional Lie algebra representation has formal character ${\sum }_{\lambda }(\dim V_{\lambda })e(\lambda )$ in this ring. The Weyl group acts by $e(\lambda )\mapsto e(w\lambda )$. The ambient ring need not consist of genuine characters; the representation ring of a semisimple Lie algebra of finite-dimensional modules for a complex semisimple Lie algebra identifies with the invariant subring $\mathbb{Z}[P{]}^W$.

// Target: semisimple-lie-algebra.bigb

Restrict a finite-dimensional representation of a complex semisimple Lie algebra to the sl2 subalgebra associated with a root $\alpha$. Its Cartan element is the coroot $h_{\alpha }$. The classification of finite-dimensional sl2 representations gives only integer eigenvalues for this element, so every weight of a representation has integral value on every coroot. This proves containment of all such representation weights in the weight lattice; it does not hold for unrestricted infinite-dimensional modules.

The subgroup of unitary bundle gauge transformations equal to the identity at a chosen framed base point. Quotienting flat connections by this subgroup retains the full flat holonomy representation; quotienting by the whole group also divides by simultaneous conjugation.

// Destination: geometry-and-topology.bigb

Let $A$ be a smooth unitary connection on a Hermitian vector bundle over a closed Riemannian manifold of dimension $n$. For a nearby connection on a vector bundle $A+a$, the Coulomb slice for unitary connections imposesThe linearized gauge transformation equation is $d_A^{\ast }{d}_A\xi$. Its kernel consists of the parallel infinitesimal gauge transformations. On their orthogonal complement it has an inverse, by ellipticity and compactness.

For example, take $W^{1,p}$ Sobolev spaces for connections on a vector bundle and $W^{2,p}$ for gauge transformations, with $p>n$. The implicit function theorem supplies a local slice. Remaining identifications come from the compact stabilizer of $A$. If the curvature equation becomes elliptic after this gauge fixing, Fredholm Kuranishi reduction expresses its local solution set by a smooth obstruction map between finite-dimensional vector spaces, followed by the stabilizer quotient. Closedness is what makes this elliptic reduction Fredholm.

// Destination: geometry-and-topology.bigb

The usual uniqueness theorem assumes a complex simple Lie algebra, or a real form with simple complexification. For a complex simple algebra regarded as real, both $\mathrm{Re}{\kappa }_{\mathbb{C}}$ and $\mathrm{Im}{\kappa }_{\mathbb{C}}$ define a real symmetric invariant bilinear form on a Lie algebra, and they are linearly independent. The real Killing form is $2\mathrm{Re}{\kappa }_{\mathbb{C}}$. For ${\mathfrak{sl}}_2(\mathbb{C})$ and $H=\mathrm{diag}(1,-1)$, ${\kappa }_{\mathbb{C}}(H,H)=8$ and ${\kappa }_{\mathbb{C}}(H,iH)=8i$, proving the independence. This real algebra is simple: its real complexification is two complex simple ideals exchanged by conjugation, and a real ideal would complexify to a conjugation-stable sum of these ideals, hence either zero or the whole algebra.

The two-isogeny formula gives the partner $E^{\prime }:y^2=x^3-16x^2+92x$. The two-torsion square-class homomorphism image for $E$ is $\{1,-7\}$: prime support leaves only $\{1,-1,7,-7\}$, the modulo-sixteen obstruction for the negative unit descent class excludes $-1$, and the subgroup property excludes $7$. For $E^{\prime }$, $(x-8{)}^2+28>0$ forces nonnegative $x$, so the image is contained in $\{1,2,23,46\}$. The two-torsion point realizes $23$ and the rational point $(18,48)$ realizes $2$, giving all four classes. The two-isogeny rank formula yields $2^r=2\cdot 4/4=2$, hence rank one. The dual isogeny sends $(18,48)$ to $(16/9,116/27)$; this statement does not assert that the resulting point is a generator of the full free part.

For $E:y^2=x^3+x$, the two-torsion square-class homomorphism has image $\{1\}$: prime-support bounds allow only $\pm 1$, and every nonzero affine $x$ is positive. Its two-isogeny formula companion $E^{\prime }:y^2=x^3-4x$ has possible image classes $\{1,-1,2,-2\}$, all realized by its rational two-torsion. The two-isogeny rank formula gives $2^r=1\cdot 4/4=1$, so the rank is zero.

For $E:y^2=x^3-2x$, prime-support bounds allow image classes $\{1,-1,2,-2\}$. The rational points $(0,0)$ and $(2,2)$ realize $-2$ and $2$, and the two-torsion square-class homomorphism is multiplicative, so all four occur. Its companion $E^{\prime }:y^2=x^3+8x$ has only positive candidate classes $1,2$, both realized by the identity and $(0,0)$. The two-isogeny rank formula gives $2^r=4\cdot 2/4=2$, so the rank is one. The point $(2,2)$ has infinite order: its double is $(9/4,-21/8)$, contradicting the integrality of torsion coordinates in the Nagell–Lutz theorem if it were torsion.

The two-torsion square-class homomorphism on $E$ has candidate classes $\{1,-1,17,-17\}$ by the prime-support bound in two-isogeny descent. The identity, $(0,0)$ and $(-1,4)$ realize $1,-17,-1$, so multiplicativity gives all four. The two-isogeny formula companion $E^{\prime }:y^2=x^3+68x$ has only positive candidate classes $\{1,2,17,34\}$; $(0,0)$ realizes $[68]=17$ and $(2,12)$ realizes $2$. Thus both images have order four, and the two-isogeny rank formula gives $2^r=4\cdot 4/4=4$. The rank of an elliptic curve is therefore two, without any unresolved covering class.

For this elliptic curve, the two-isogeny formula gives the partner $E^{\prime }:Y^2=X^3+14X^2+X$. The prime-support bound in two-isogeny descent and positivity of nonzero rational $x$ restrict the first square class image to $1,2,3,6$. The identity and the rational points $(2,2),(0,0),(6,6)$ realize these classes. The partner image is contained in $\{1,-1\}$, and the negative unit obstruction for the fourteen-coefficient isogeny cover excludes $-1$. The two-isogeny rank formula therefore gives $2^r=4\cdot 1/4=1$.