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A voter is pivotal when changing only that voter's participation changes the election result. For an opponent facing two independent supporters with participation probabilities $\beta ,\gamma$, under a rule requiring strictly more votes in favour, the opponent is pivotal when exactly one supporter votes. This probability is $\beta (1-\gamma )+(1-\beta )\gamma$.

// Target: mathematical-optimization.bigb

Suppose turnout costs $3c>0$, each supporter gains $4c$ on passage, and the opponent loses $8c$. The symmetric-supporter Nash equilibria $(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )$ are $(0,1/4,1/4)$ and $(1,3/4,3/4)$. Allowing different supporter probabilities adds $(1/4,0,3/8)$ and $(1/4,3/8,0)$. These follow by comparing the pivotal voting probabilities with the turnout cost; no player benefits by changing their mixed strategy.

// Target: mathematical-optimization.bigb

For a barotropic perfect fluid with constant $w$, its cosmological adiabatic sound speed satisfies $c_s^2=w$. If $w<0$, the short-wavelength pressure term has the wrong sign for restoring oscillations: a mode grows as $\exp (\sqrt{-w}k\tau )$ when expansion can be neglected. For $w=-1/3$ in a coasting background with constant conformal expansion rate $K$, the exponents are $-K\pm \sqrt{K^2+k^2/3}$. This is a gradient instability, not ordinary positive-pressure Jeans instability. A network with tension or elastic anisotropic stress needs different constitutive perturbation equations; a negative background equation of state alone does not establish its perturbation sound speed.

Frequency ratios multiply when a photon is transformed first between a source and its local comoving frame, then propagated through an expanding universe. Thus the kinematic redshift and cosmological redshift factors multiply. Their redshifts themselves add only to first order when both are small.

A cosmological redshift relates a particular emission event to a particular reception event along a null geodesic. Two sources' redshifts on Earth's past light cone do not specify the light exchanged between those sources. If a photon from B passes through A before reaching Earth, and A's comparison emission lies at that passage event, then $1+z_{BA}=(1+z_B)/(1+z_A)$. Without this causal and temporal specification the ratio need not give the redshift measured in A.

During a decelerating expansion the comoving Hubble radius grows. A fixed comoving wavenumber then passes from a superhorizon scale to a shorter scale when $k\simeq aH$. In radiation domination, $aH=1/\tau$, so this occurs at $k\tau \simeq 1$. Here horizon entry refers to Hubble radius crossing; a true causal horizon instead depends on a conformal-time integral.

A comoving source's spectral luminosity $L_{{\nu }_e}$ specifies emitted power per unit emitted frequency. The cosmological redshift reduces photon energy and arrival rate by two factors of $1+z$, but also narrows the received frequency interval by one factor. Consequently its observed spectral flux density is $L_{{\nu }_e}/[4\pi a_0^2{r}^2(1+z)]$, with ${\nu }_e=(1+z){\nu }_0$. Substituting luminosity distance $d_L=(1+z)a_{0}r$ gives the displayed relation. Integrating over received frequency recovers the bolometric radiative flux $L/(4\pi d_L^2)$. A fixed-frequency comparison must evaluate the source spectrum at the shifted emitted frequency.

For physical density ${\bar{\rho }}_i$ and conformal time, $\mathcal{H}=a^{\prime }/a=aH$. Substitution into the definition ${\Omega }_i=8\pi G{\bar{\rho }}_i/(3H^2)$ gives the displayed formula. Omitting $a^2$ gives ${\Omega }_i/a^2$, which need not equal one even in a spatially flat matter-only universe. In particular, the conformal growth source $\frac{3}{2}{\mathcal{H}}^2{\Omega }_m$ equals $4\pi G{a}^2{\bar{\rho }}_m$ with the physical density parameter.

The matter density parameter is the ratio of total nonrelativistic matter density, including baryonic and dark matter, to the critical density ${\rho }_{\mathrm{crit}}=3H^2/(8\pi G)$ at the same epoch. A present-epoch value uses $H_0$ and ${\rho }_{m,0}$. It is not the total cosmological density parameter when radiation or vacuum energy also contributes.

The cosmological constant problem is the unexplained smallness of the gravitationally observable vacuum energy compared with the contributions expected from quantum field theory. In units with $\hslash =c=1$, an ultraviolet cutoff ${\Lambda }_{\mathrm{UV}}$ generically gives contributions of order ${\Lambda }_{\mathrm{UV}}^4$, whereas the observed dark-energy density is of order $10^{-47}{\mathrm{GeV}}^4$. The Einstein equation depends on the sum of a bare cosmological constant and these contributions; subtracting a constant from a nongravitational Hamiltonian does not remove its gravitational effect. Exact global supersymmetry gives zero energy to a supersymmetric vacuum, but supersymmetry breaking generally reintroduces a much larger positive scale.

Nonrelativistic matter dilutes as $a^{-3}$, while a cosmological constant has constant energy density. The ratio of vacuum energy density to matter density consequently scales as $a^3$, so comparable contributions occur during a limited epoch. The cosmic coincidence problem asks why observers find these very different components comparable near their own epoch. This timing puzzle is distinct from the cosmological constant problem, which concerns the tiny absolute vacuum-energy scale.

For an open matter-dominated Friedmann solution, put $u=H_0\sqrt{1-{\Omega }_0}\tau$, $a={\Omega }_0(\cosh u-1)/[2(1-{\Omega }_0)]$ and $\cosh u_0=2/{\Omega }_0-1$. The cosmological bolometric background from conserved sources has $J(u)=\sinh (2u)/4-2\sinh u+3u/2$, since $J^{\prime }=(\cosh u-1{)}^2$ and $dt=adu/[H_0\sqrt{1-{\Omega }_0}]$. At fixed $H_0$, the limit ${\Omega }_0\to 0$ is $cL{n}_0/(2H_0)$, whereas the Einstein-de Sitter universe gives $2cL{n}_0/(5H_0)$. Keeping the cosmic age fixed instead reverses this ordering: the two values are respectively $cL{n}_0{t}_0/2$ and $3cL{n}_0{t}_0/5$.

For nonevolving comoving number density $n_0$, identical spectra $L_{\nu }\propto {\nu }^{\alpha }$, and no attenuation, the cosmological background intensity from comoving emissivity in an Einstein-de Sitter universe is proportional to ${\int }_0^{\infty }(1+z{)}^{\alpha -5/2}dz$. The improper integral is finite exactly for $\alpha <3/2$, with value $1/(3/2-\alpha )$. Equality gives logarithmic divergence; larger $\alpha$ gives a power-law divergence. A formation epoch or a spectral break can regularize this idealized model.

A finite visibility width averages photon sources over emission time and radial position. For a Gaussian visibility profile, a plane-wave radial phase has the displayed damping factor; its power has the square of this amplitude factor. An acoustic source also varies with frequency $k{c}_s$, so its rapid oscillations are averaged. This averaging is distinct from Silk damping, which smooths the perturbations by photon diffusion before decoupling. Angular projection and source evolution prevent a universal isotropic damping coefficient based only on radial width.

The extension of the cosine to the complex plane is $\cos z=(e^{iz}+e^{-iz})/2$. Splitting the complex exponential function into its real part and imaginary part gives the displayed formula in terms of hyperbolic cosine and hyperbolic sine.

For a homogeneous isotropic point process of galaxies with mean number density $\bar{n}$, the galaxy two-point correlation function gives the excess pair probability at distinct positions. Dividing the factorial pair density by the probability of a central galaxy gives conditional neighbouring-galaxy density $\bar{n}[1+\xi (r)]$. Choosing a central location uniformly in volume does not perform this conditioning.

For the Fourier transform convention ${\delta }_{\mathbf{k}}=\int d^{3}x\delta (\mathbf{x})e^{i\mathbf{k}\cdot \mathbf{x}}$ and covariance $⟨{\delta }_{\mathbf{k}}{\delta }_{{\mathbf{k}}^{\prime }}⟩=(2\pi {)}^{3}P(k){\delta }_D(\mathbf{k}+{\mathbf{k}}^{\prime })$, inversion gives $\xi (\mathbf{r})=\int d^{3}kP(k)e^{i\mathbf{k}\cdot \mathbf{r}}/(2\pi {)}^3$. Isotropy reduces the angular integral to $4\pi j_0(kr)$, where $j_0(x)=\sin x/x$ is the order-zero Spherical Bessel function. At zero separation this gives the variance if the spectrum integral converges. A nonnegative spectrum can produce negative correlations away from the origin.

The correlation function with a single field insertion is its expectation value. In a translation-invariant vacuum it is independent of position. A tadpole subtraction chooses a linear counterterm, or shifts the expansion point of the field, so that this expectation is zero. This removes attached tadpole diagrams from higher connected correlation functions without discarding the physical need to renormalize the chosen vacuum.

The four-point correlation function measures a time-ordered product of four field insertions. For a centered scalar field its disconnected terms are the three products of two-point functions, and subtracting those products leaves the connected correlation function. In a free Gaussian scalar vacuum the connected four-point function vanishes, by Wick's theorem, so only the three paired products remain. The connected four-point function of phi-fourth theory starts with one quartic vertex; amputation removes its external propagators. The full correlator, its connected part and the four-point one-particle-irreducible correlation function should therefore be distinguished.

In a set family, replace a set containing $i$ by its deletion of $i$ only when that deletion is absent. This preserves cardinality and cannot increase maximum pairwise Hamming distance. If a new set and a retained set gave a larger distance, the retained set's deletion would already have been present; that deletion and the original uncompressed set would give the same distance. Repeated downward compressions yield a down-set.