The sections on haloes and parhelia identify hexagonal ice crystals and the approximately minimum angular scale.
Volume II, chapter VI, §442, contrasts Siméon Denis Poisson's induced molecular magnetization with Wilhelm Eduard Weber's pre-existing molecular magnets. A publisher transcription of that section is available at www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/treatise-on-electricity-and-magnetism/webers-theory-of-magnetic-induction/672E4931AABCC94ED48AE9B952B85B48.
By John Lekner. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 468, pp. 2829–2848; published online 23 May 2012. The paper's exact result concerns finite conducting spheres. It is distinct from the leading small-sphere model used in charged conducting sphere in a slowly varying electric field.
Edited by William Crookes. The linked Chatto & Windus reprint is dated 1894. The 1860 edition is separately catalogued by the Biodiversity Heritage Library: www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/29969. Lecture VI includes carbon-point electrical light and a heated platinum bridge.
Museum inventory 1417, dated 1840, identifies a many-turn fine-wire instrument with Carlo Matteucci's muscle-current research. Its inscription reads “Galvanometro del Matteucci / 1840 / Corrente Muscolare”.
Official datasheet: Texas Instruments, SCHS032D. Section 8.2 specifies the JK flip-flop state changes. The July 2021 document revision postdates the sitting; it corroborates the established device truth table rather than supplying a later examination convention.
Sections 1–3 state the aim of a systematic moving-system theory and begin from electron-theory field equations; sections 10–11 discuss assumptions about the deformation of moving matter and their optical consequences. This immediate pre-Einstein comparison is explicitly a twentieth-century work, not a nineteenth-century publication.
Introduction and sections II and IV formulate moving-body electromagnetism relative to a stationary ether and introduce transformations of the equations. The 2021 date in the facsimile repository is the digitization date, not the publication date. The source is used to distinguish nineteenth-century ether dynamics from Albert Einstein's 1905 principle-based treatment.
The linked fourth edition retains advertisements dated 1704 and 1717. Book I, part I develops different refrangibility and the composition of light. Later queries must not automatically be attributed to the first edition.
The detector manufacturer's technical note defines noise-equivalent power relative to unit signal-to-noise ratio and a 1 Hz detection bandwidth, and explains how integrated noise changes with bandwidth.
The instrument manufacturer's explanation gives nominal optical path difference as reciprocal spectral resolution element width, and mirror travel as half that optical path difference. A resolution specification still requires distinguishing nominal resolution from the first-zero width of a symmetric rectangular scan.
Manufacturer application note. The oversampling and Averaging section discusses uncorrelated noise and dither; Table 1 gives fourfold sample-count increases per extra output bit. No individual author is established by the consulted HTML page.
Institutional report on the Michelson interferometer, interferograms, Fourier transform spectroscopy, interferogram apodization, resolution and sampling. Chapters 13–16 derive the reconstruction and discuss finite-window and sampling limitations.
Manufacturer's data sheet, revision D, October 2015.
Section 6.5, p. 5, gives typical input impedance at and typical large-signal voltage gain . Section 7.4.2 describes closed-loop feedback. These are device-specific examples for interpreting a real operational amplifier.
Application Note 3. No publication date is inferred. Physical pages 1–2 describe synchronized multiplication, low-pass rejection of sum frequencies, detection bandwidth and two quadrature outputs. Noise near the reference remains within the selected passband; coherent background at that frequency cannot be distinguished by synchronization alone.
Primary application report deriving the active-filter transfer functions and discussing component ratios, gain, quality factor and nonideal operation. Sections 3 and 3.4 treat the low-pass and equal-component cases.
MIT's authored teaching-material index names Vladimir Bulović as instructor. Lectures4–7 cover molecular levels, Franck-Condon factors, aggregate excitations and Frenkel excitons. These are reference notes, not this Cambridge paper's answers.
Manufacturer technical glossary entry, titled “low-vacuum SEM, Natural SEM, Wet SEM, variable pressure SEM, VP-SEM, Environmental SEM, ESEM”. It explains gas-ion charge neutralization and environmental electron detectors.
Institutional electromagnetism notes: farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/355/Surveyhtml/node85.html. The grounded-plane construction and uniqueness argument provide a reusable image-charge example.
The paper introduces frequency-resolved optical gating for arbitrary femtosecond pulse characterization. Author-hosted original: frog.gatech.edu/Pubs/Kane-1stFROG-QE-1993.pdf. DOI: doi.org/10.1109/3.199311
Institutional recommendation titled “Propagation by diffraction”; Annex 1, Section 2.7 defines the Fresnel integrals and Section 4.1 treats a single knife edge. These normalize diffraction relative to the unobstructed field at the same receiver position.
Physical Review 126, 1977–1979.
The abstract separates dispersive lattice response from higher-resonance electronic response and describes additional nonlinear-polarization symmetry constraints.
Optics Letters 1(1), 16–18. Primary theoretical analysis.
The abstract identifies amplified phase-conjugated propagation and parametric oscillation. The present coupled-equation solution is derived independently with the sign convention of the exam's differential equations.
University of Virginia, Graduate Electrodynamics. The section Scattering by a Small Perfectly Conducting Sphere gives both electric and magnetic dipole responses. This is an authored institutional lecture, not an experimental measurement.
By David Tong. Chapter 4, Electrodynamics, sections 4.1.2, 4.2–4.4: inductance, displacement current, light waves and energy transport. Chapter 7, Electromagnetism in Matter, sections 7.4–7.6: boundary conditions, reflection, dispersion and conductor/plasma response.
By Janos Kirz and David Attwood. Section 4.4 of the X-Ray Data Booklet, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
The section specifies half-period-zone geometry and distinguishes focal resolution from first-order diffraction efficiency. Its ideal binary amplitude zone plate has first-order efficiency .
Published in Physical Review 188, starting at page 1969, on 25 December 1969: journals.aps.org/pr/abstract/10.1103/PhysRev.188.1969
The primary calculation obtains the near-resonant driven-atom fluorescence spectrum from two-time atomic dipole correlations, with radiation damping included through coupling to the quantized electromagnetic field. It provides the source for the Mollow triplet.
Course lecture summaries: lecture 2 gives the Maxwell eigenproblem; lectures 9–14 cover Bloch modes, band gaps and defect localization. This is the whole-course source, distinct from the existing source specifically for lectures 18–19.
Section 9.6 of Classical Electromagnetism by Richard Fitzpatrick. Equations (1289)–(1293) derive the bound-charge Rayleigh limit and frequency scaling. The sphere polarizability and needle-orientation calculations in the solutions are separate derivations.
Section 1.7 of Classical Electromagnetism by Richard Fitzpatrick. Equations (71)–(76) give the Lorenz-gauge wave equations and causal potentials. Whole-work author credit applies.
Section 12.22 of Classical Electromagnetism by Richard Fitzpatrick. Equations (1974)–(1981) cover beaming, power and pulse compression. Whole-work author credit applies.
Chapter of Interactive Optics by Sander Konijnenberg, Aurèle J.L. Adam and H. Paul Urbach. Whole-work authors apply. Locators: creating polarization states and wave plates; equation (273) for birefringent relative phase. No separate chapter date is established.
Chapter of Interactive Optics by Sander Konijnenberg, Aurèle J.L. Adam and H. Paul Urbach. The whole-work authors apply; no separate chapter byline or publication date is assigned. Locators: Coherence of Light Sources, equations (299)–(302); More on Spatial coherence.
MT-002, pages 1–12: sampled spectra, aliasing and practical anti-aliasing filters.
Ask the Applications Engineer—7: Op-amp Noise. Covers resistor Johnson-Nyquist noise, amplifier voltage noise and input-current noise.
University electronics course, Chapter 3: ideal high-gain negative feedback and practical operational amplifier limits.
Manufacturer account of lithographic optics and immersion. Its current product descriptions are not evidence that a particular historical exam process used a later product.
Printed p.7 explains magnification as display width divided by probe scan width. The raster-display geometry is useful in scanned transmitted-electron imaging too; the SEM detector mechanisms are not silently substituted for STEM detectors.
Institutional glossary.
Institutional glossary.
Official glossary entry and imaging-lens-system diagram: area selection in the objective image plane and imaging of the diffraction plane.
Official electron-microscopy glossary entry, objective-lens function and image formation.
Primary experimental study comparing image information and damage at different accelerating voltages in nonbiological polymer films. The reported optimum is specimen-specific.
Relevant evidence: Coherent versus incoherent imaging cutoff and transfer functions.
Publisher: Delft University of Technology.
Relevant evidence: Resist dose contrast, equation 2.6.
The original report by Albert Abraham Michelson and Edward W. Morley describes an interferometer experiment constraining the orientation dependence of light propagation. Scanned report: history.aip.org/exhibits/gap/PDF/michelson.pdf
Cited passages: Simon F. Tolić-Nørrelykke et al., Calibration of optical tweezers with positional detection in the back-focal-plane (2006), abstract: combined thermal-spectrum and stage-driven calibration.
Cited passages: Steven G. Johnson, MIT 18.369 Nanophotonics, Spring 2016, lectures 18–19: energy velocity as averaged flux divided by density, and its equality with group velocity in the lossless electromagnetic setting.
Cited passages: Jan Gieseler et al., Optical Tweezers: A Comprehensive Tutorial from Calibration to Applications (2020), §§2.1–2.2, 3.3 and Tables 1–3: apparatus, Brownian position variance and comparison of calibrations.
Cited passages: Richard Fitzpatrick, Pulse Propagation, equation 9.7: the deep-water gravity-capillary dispersion relation; Richard Fitzpatrick, Pulse Propagation, equations 9.9–9.16: first-order expansion and envelope translation; subsequent discussion explains the neglected curvature.
Cited passages: Wesley P. Wong and Ken Halvorsen, The effect of integration time on fluctuation measurements: calibrating an optical trap in the presence of motion blur (2006), §II and §IV, equations 15 and 32: exposure averaging, optical apparatus and fixed-bead noise control.
Cited passages: Richard Fitzpatrick, Wave-Front Propagation, 27 June 2014, equations 871–873 and following discussion: no field before t=x/c in the causal dielectric model.
Publisher: Physics Laboratory (official physics.wisc.edu teaching website).
Cited passages: EC-2: Electric Fields, General methodology steps 3–4: electrode drop, zero, contact resistance and leakage; EC-2: Electric Fields, Introduction: small current in uniform high-resistivity planar material.
Publisher: Caltech / The Feynman Lectures Website (online edition).
Additional cited passages: II.14–6, equations (14.37)–(14.38): volume-to-wire conversion; II.14–7, equations (14.39)–(14.43): volume law, displacement convention and cross-product order; II.14–5, equations (14.33)–(14.36): loop magnetic moment and dipole field. Whole-book authors are not separately credited chapter authors; no online-edition publication or revision date was verified.
Additional cited passages: II.13–4, equations (13.12)–(13.13) and subsequent steady-source and closed-circuit discussion; II.13–5, equations (13.17)–(13.18) and internal-current explanation of magnetic matter. Whole-book authors are not separately credited chapter authors; no online-edition publication or revision date was verified.
Additional cited passages: II.2–7, Second derivatives of vector fields, equations (2.52)–(2.54), the Laplacian and the rectangular-component statement after (2.54); II.2–8, Pitfalls, equation (2.60) and final coordinate-system caution. II.12–4, equations (12.19)–(12.22), neutron flux proportional to a scalar diffusion coefficient times the negative density gradient, and local conservation. Equation (12.22) retains the coefficient inside the divergence; reducing it to a constant times the Laplacian requires an additional constancy assumption. Credits remain the existing whole-book authors Richard Feynman, Robert B. Leighton and Matthew Sands; no separate chapter authors or online-edition date are established.
Volume II, Chapter 40, Section 40–1, Hydrostatics, derives normal pressure balance and states the constant-density gravitational relation between pressure and height. This supplies the depth-dependent pressure law used for planar hydrostatic resultant calculations. [ref]
Cited passages: The Feynman Lectures on Physics, II.4–3: path-independent work and equations 4.19–4.23.
Cited passages: The Feynman Lectures on Physics, II.21–2, equations 21.2–21.3, and the Maxwell-equation summary following §21–3.
Publisher: RP Photonics AG.
The entry Wavefronts, www.rp-photonics.com/wavefronts.html , describes surfaces of constant phase, planar and spherical wavefronts, and changes of wavefront shape through optical elements. It provides the geometric context for wavefront curvature.
Article by Rüdiger Paschotta in RP Photonics Encyclopedia by Rüdiger Paschotta, hosted by RP Photonics. No article publication or revision date is established.
Cited passages: What is a Refractive Index?; Wavelength Dependence and Other Dependencies; Anisotropic Media; Complex Refractive Index; Group Index and Effective Index; Measuring Refractive Indices.
Cited passages: Rüdiger Paschotta, RP Photonics Encyclopedia, Wavefronts: What are Wavefronts? and Various Details; Rüdiger Paschotta, Wavefronts: Various Details, anisotropic propagation.
Cited passages: Rüdiger Paschotta, RP Photonics Encyclopedia, Group Index: What is a Group Index? and Group Index and Time Delays.
By Rüdiger Paschotta. No article date is established.
Publisher: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, OpenCourseWare.
Course is Spring 2014; PDF itself bears the date string 03/11/13. Author identified as Nick Fang in PDF and Nicholas X. Fang on course page.
Cited passages: Nick Fang, Optics lecture 10, pages 1–3: eikonal equation, optical path integral and ray direction.
The notes also use a nondispersive travel-time interpretation; this enrichment limits that interpretation explicitly rather than applying it to arbitrary dispersive media.
Cited passages: Nick Fang, Lecture Notes on Geometrical Optics, page 4, equation 1: optical path integral.
Cited passages: Nick Fang, MIT Lecture Notes on Geometrical Optics, 2014, introduction and §H; Nick Fang, MIT Lecture Notes on Geometrical Optics, 2014, §J: Composite lenses; Nick Fang, MIT Lecture Notes on Geometrical Optics, §H: Magnification; Nick Fang, MIT Lecture Notes on Geometrical Optics, §J: Composite lenses; Nick Fang, MIT Lecture Notes on Geometrical Optics, §§E–G; Nick Fang, MIT: Geometrical optics; Nick Fang, MIT: Geometrical optics, pages 1-3.
Cited passages: Nick Fang, Review for Optics, 12 May 2014, pp. 7–8, §E(a–b): coherent field and incoherent intensity imaging; Review for Optics, p. 8, §E(b): OTF as Fourier transform of intensity PSF and pupil autocorrelation; Review for Optics, pp. 6–8, §§D(c), E: lens Fourier transform and pupil transfer function.
Publisher: University of Texas at Austin (author-hosted teaching site).
Cited passages: Richard Fitzpatrick, Laws of Geometric Optics, equations 949–955: tangential wavevector matching and refraction; Richard Fitzpatrick, Laws of Geometric Optics, equations 951–953 and accompanying definition of the vacuum wavenumber.
Published in Advanced Characterization Techniques for Optics, Semiconductors, and Nanotechnologies II.
Publisher: SPIE, Bellingham, WA.
Published in Proceedings of SPIE, volume 5878, article 58781B (proceedings series, not treated as the parent title).
Cited passages: §2 and Fig. 1, pp. 2–3: apparatus; §3.2 and Figs. 4–5, pp. 4–5: bead-size comparison and limitations.
Publisher: Nikon Instruments, MicroscopyU.
Cited passages: Michael W. Davidson, Numerical Aperture, Formula 1 and object-side convention.
Publisher: Nikon Instruments, MicroscopyU.
Cited passages: Michael W. Davidson, Resolution, Formula 2 and discussion after Formulas 1–3: criterion and illumination dependence.
Published in Physical Review X 6, 031033 (2016).
Cited passages: Tsang, Nair and Lu, Quantum Theory of Superresolution for Two Incoherent Optical Point Sources, abstract and published-version metadata: separation estimation beyond the Rayleigh convention.
Publisher: ISOP project website.
Cited passages: CO2 viewing cell, 7 June 2024: paragraphs describing the isochoric cooldown, displayed temperature/pressure, and reflected/transmitted appearance.
Publisher: The University of Texas at Austin (host institution).
Cited passages: Richard Fitzpatrick, Polarization, equations (807)–(812): displacement, polarization and susceptibility; this source uses epsilon for relative permittivity.
Cited passages: Richard Fitzpatrick, Magnetic susceptibility and permeability, equations (866)–(868): isotropic linear response and permeability.
Section of Classical Electromagnetism: An intermediate level course by Richard Fitzpatrick by whole-work author Richard Fitzpatrick; no separate chapter byline is established. The University of Texas at Austin hosts the author’s teaching text.
Online revision: 2006-02-02; this is not an original publication date.
Cited passages: Complete section; equations (856)–(857) and surrounding averaging definition; Equations (860)–(864), current decomposition and H definition; Whole-work title and author byline on lectures.html.
Cited passages: Keysight Technologies, Materials Measurement: Dielectric Materials, Problem and Solution: parallel electrodes, guarded measurement, specimen flatness and fixture compensation; inspected HTML asset-page text; Materials Measurement: Dielectric Materials, Solution: air gaps, frequency limits of guarding and temperature control.
Cited passages: Keysight Technologies, Open/Short Compensation and Z Port Extension, Overview and Open/Short Compensation: fixture open admittance and short impedance; compensation performed at the measurement terminals.
Collection of sources; individual chapter authors and dates are recorded below.
Cited passages: Abstract: distinction between radiometry and photometry; Abstract: luminous flux in lumens and spectral weighting; Abstract: radiometric quantities and units; photometry weights radiation by the eye's spectral response.
Publisher: University of Texas at Austin (author-hosted teaching site).
Cited passages: Localized Current Distribution, equations 661–677: distant vector-potential expansion and dipole field; Localized Current Distribution, equations 678–679: closed-loop integral and planar area normal; Richard Fitzpatrick, Localized Current Distribution, equations 664–675: vanishing boundary terms, current identities and moment integral.
Section of Classical Electromagnetism by Richard Fitzpatrick by whole-work author Richard Fitzpatrick; no separate chapter byline is established. The University of Texas at Austin hosts the author’s teaching text.
Online revision: 2014-06-27; this is not an original publication date.
Cited passages: Complete Permanent Ferromagnets section, particularly equations (709) and (712)–(716); Outward surface-normal discussion following equation (710); Whole-work index byline; existing reusable source scope also verified in physics-bibliography.bigb.
Publisher: PHYWE.
Cited passages: P2430400, pp. 4–9: theory, equipment, setup, angular settings, Table 1 and Figures 2–6.
Publisher: PHYWE SYSTEME GMBH.
Cited passages: 02416.00, §§1–4: metallic-band compensation, zero procedure, force indication and scale specification.
Publisher: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
Cited passages: Definition and Note 1: reciprocal wavelength in a medium; vacuum convention in spectroscopy.
Publisher: Nikon Instruments Inc., MicroscopyU.
Cited passages: Fig. 2 discussion: focused-light sections rather than physical sectioning; Introductory Confocal Concepts, opening paragraphs and Fig. 2: out-of-focus fluorescence and optical sections.
Cited passages: Amos, McConnell and Wilson, Confocal microscopy, manuscript pp. 5, 7–8: conjugate foci, Fig. 3, fiber-delivered illumination; Appendix §6, manuscript pp. 42–43: Airy unit defined between the focal spot's zeros and conversion to real units; Appendix §6, manuscript pp. 42–43: thin fluorescent sheet translated through focus; Introduction, manuscript p. 2; Fig. 3 and caption, pp. 7–8: scanning and stationary return beam; Manuscript p. 16, Fig. 4 discussion; Appendix §5, p. 37, Eq. A17: illumination-times-detection response.
This is the inspected authored chapter manuscript. Its intended handbook is named in the manuscript; a final collection title, publication year, DOI and editors were not independently verified.
Cited passages: Front-page filing/publication metadata; description, Optical System, Fig. 1; Stage Scanning System.
Publisher: PASCO scientific.
This source is credited to an organization.
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