On a good cover, combine Čech degree $p$ and differential-form degree $q$ in the double complex of forms on intersections. The Čech differential and exterior derivative commute, so the total differential $\delta +(-1{)}^{p}d$ squares to zero. A partition of unity and the Poincaré lemma identify its cohomology with both constant-sheaf and de Rham cohomology. The sign convention makes Čech-de Rham curvature descent explicit.

A phase-mixed population secularly forced by a distant eccentric planet has typical orbital eccentricity proportional to $e_{p}a/a_p$. Consequently a relative speed of order orbital eccentricity times Keplerian speed gives $v_{\mathrm{col}}^2\sim e_p^2(a/a_p)GM/a_p$. Comparing specific impact energy with a catastrophic disruption threshold gives a lower disruption radius $a/a_p\gtrsim Q_D^{\ast }{a}_p/(GM{e}_p^2)$, up to an order-one coefficient depending on velocity statistics and impact-energy convention. The planet mass sets the secular stirring time, but cancels from this energy scaling.

For a Cartan subalgebra $H$ of a finite-dimensional complex semisimple Lie algebra $L$, $H$ is abelian and $C_L(H)=H$, so it is maximal among abelian subalgebras. Starting from the nilpotent self-normalizing definition, the generalized-weight decomposition for a nilpotent Lie algebra and the Engel theorem show that the zero generalized weight space of its adjoint action is exactly $H$. Invariance of the Killing form makes $H$ orthogonal to every nonzero generalized weight space. The Lie theorem gives $B([H,H],H)=0$, and nondegeneracy then forces $[H,H]=0$. An element commuting with $H$ normalizes it, hence belongs to $H$.

For a relativistic particle, the Hamiltonian gauge parameter changes the worldline einbein by its time derivative. Fixing the einbein to a constant therefore gives a Faddeev-Popov determinant of ${\partial }_t$, represented by anticommuting FP ghosts. Gauge zero modes and the proper-time modulus are treated separately. The displayed phase convention gives the odd canonical bracket $\{b,c\}=-i$.

Using the graded Leibniz rule, $s^{2}A=D(sc)+g(Dc)\times c=0$ because $D(c\times c)=2(Dc)\times c$. The graded Jacobi identity gives $s^{2}c=g^2(c\times c)\times c/2=0$. BRST nilpotence on the antighost and Nakanishi-Lautrup field is immediate. No field equations are required.

Use gauge-fixing term $({\partial }^{\mu }b)\cdot A_{\mu }$, ghost term $-({\partial }^{\mu }\bar{c})\cdot D_{\mu }c$, and the left-acting BRST differential with $s\bar{c}=b$. Localizing the odd parameter on the left yields $\delta S=-\int ({\partial }_{\mu }ϵ)j_B^{\mu }$. Moving it through the antighost derivative determines the last sign. Changing the overall Noether convention reverses this current; rewriting gauge fixing by integration by parts changes its improvement term. Every summand has ghost number one.

The FP ghost square vanishes, so this BRST charge is nilpotent. On a ghost-number-zero wavefunction, BRST cohomology implements the Klein-Gordon equation. Closure of an unrestricted ghost-extended wavefunction does not independently constrain every component: a pure FP ghost component can lie in the kernel without satisfying the same scalar equation. The FP ghost sector is part of the physical prescription.

For standard one-dimensional Brownian motion and a fixed $h>0$, the Brownian reflection principle gives the survival probability $2\Phi (h/\sqrt{t})-1$. The standard normal distribution function has derivative $1/\sqrt{2\pi }$ at zero, giving the displayed asymptotic. Thus the persistence exponent is one half, with leading constant $h\sqrt{2/\pi }$.

In the completed natural Brownian filtration, a bounded continuously differentiable $\varphi$ with bounded derivative satisfiesThe integrand is unique up to $d\mathbb{P}dt$-almost everywhere equality. Gaussian integration by parts first gives the duality between the payoff and every square-integrable Itô integral. The Brownian martingale representation theorem then identifies the integrand as the projection of ${\varphi }^{\prime }(W_T)1_{\{t\le T\}}$ onto the predictable processes in the product $L^2$ space. This explains the conditional expectation in the formula, rather than a nonadapted terminal derivative.

For standard Brownian motion started at zero, let ${\tau }_x$ be its first exit from $(-x,x)$, with $x>0$. Bounded-time stopping of $B_t^2-t$ first proves integrability of the exit time and then gives its mean $x^2$. Stopping the quartic Hermite polynomial martingale gives a uniform bound on $\mathbb{E}(t\wedge {\tau }_x{)}^2$, proving second-moment integrability before passing to the limit. The resulting second moment is $5x^4/3$ and the variance is $2x^4/3$.

For standard Brownian motion started at zero and first exit ${\tau }_x$ from $(-x,x)$, the Laplace transform is $1/\cosh (x\sqrt{2\lambda })$ for $\lambda >0$. The stochastic process $e^{-\lambda t}\cosh (\sqrt{2\lambda }{B}_t)$ is the average of two copies of the Exponential martingale for Brownian motion. Its values stopped at $t\wedge {\tau }_x$ are bounded, so bounded-time application of the optional stopping theorem followed by dominated convergence evaluates the transform without assuming uniform integrability of an unstopped exponential martingale on the infinite horizon.

With $s=\sqrt{1+A^2}$, a dimensionless decaying first-order transverse sheet has $f=(s{e}^{-y}-e^{-sy})/(s-1)$, $f(0)=1$, $f^{\prime }(0)=0$, and pressure $-s(s+1)e^{-y}\cos (x-t)$. The coincident-root limit is $(1+y)e^{-y}$, the ordinary transverse mode of a Taylor swimming sheet.

The leading fixed-stroke speed of a transverse Brinkman swimming sheet is enhanced over the pure-fluid value by $\sqrt{1+(\alpha /k{)}^2}$. It follows from the mean displaced-boundary velocity and zero mean traction. The expansion is at fixed screening parameter and does not assert an enhancement at fixed available motor power.

For $s=\sqrt{1+(\alpha /k{)}^2}$, the leading work per projected area on one side of a transverse Brinkman swimming sheet is $\mu b^{2}k{\omega }^{2}s(s+1)/2$. Two fluid sides double it. Work includes viscous dissipation and drag against the matrix, giving a greater fixed-stroke cost than in the unscreened fluid.

A collision of spatial branches which pinches the spatial inversion contour as the temporal contour is lowered from above all singularities. The branches must originate on opposite sides of the spatial contour. A collision of two upper-half-plane branches or two lower-half-plane branches can solve the double-root equations without causing absolute wave-packet instability.

A boundary closure supplies the boundary rows or ghost values needed by a spatial finite difference method. It must reflect the PDE boundary data and preserve a mesh-uniform stability estimate. Interior von Neumann stability analysis cannot detect an arbitrary unstable boundary row; for example a row $U_1^{n+1}=2U_1^n$ produces growth even beside an otherwise stable heat stencil.

For $\kappa >4$, the Boundary-point Bessel flow for SLE and the SLE boundary swallowing criterion imply that the full Loewner trace hits the positive real axis almost surely. Every fixed open interval in that axis has positive hitting probability: its countably many dilates cover the axis, while Scaling invariance of SLE makes all their hitting probabilities equal. Reflection gives the corresponding negative-axis statement. Together with the domain Markov property of a chordal Loewner chain, this produces visits to the old Loewner trace boundary in a mapped future domain.

Satisfiability of conjunctive normal form formulas whose clauses have at most two unnegated variables. It is NP-complete: binary AND/OR and unary NOT gate equivalences in a Tseitin transformation already satisfy that restriction. Clauses may contain arbitrarily many negative literals; the total clause width is not restricted to two.

For a Markov random field whose positive probability density function factors into single-vertex and pairwise edge factors on a bipartite graph, variables in one color class are conditionally independent given the other color. A checkerboard Gibbs sampler therefore draws every black variable from its full conditional distribution in parallel, then every white variable conditional on the newly drawn blacks. Each color update is a blocked Gibbs sampler preserving the joint target, and their composition preserves it too.

Bipartiteness of a displayed pixel-neighbour graph is insufficient if the actual likelihood introduces factors coupling several same-color variables. For example, an observation depending jointly on two black neighbours can destroy their conditional independence. The conditional factorization of the posterior, rather than the picture alone, justifies the parallel updates.

An orthogonal block design has centered treatment-indicator vectors orthogonal to centered block-indicator vectors on the experimental units. With treatment replication $r_i$, block size $k_j$ and total $n$, this is equivalent to $n_{ij}=r_i{k}_j/n$. It permits additive block adjustment without changing treatment estimates.