An algebra over a commutative ring that is also a coalgebra, whose comultiplication and counit preserve the multiplication and unit. Equivalently it is a bimonoid in $k$-modules.

The scalar linear partial differential equation $u_t+u_x+u_{xxx}=0$ is an Airy equation with a first-order transport term. It is a linearization of the Korteweg-De Vries equation with an advective term retained. It is distinct from the viscous incompressible-flow Stokes equation. On the whole line its spatial Fourier transform evolves by $e^{i(k^3-k)t}$.

For independent claim sizes with common expected value $m$ and variance $v$, independent of the nonnegative integer count $N$, the aggregate satisfies $\mathbb{E}S=m\mathbb{E}N$ and $\mathrm{Var}(S)=v\mathbb{E}N+m^2\mathrm{Var}(N)$. Its moment-generating function is $G_N(M_X(t))$ wherever finite. These identities follow from the law of total expectation and law of total variance.

independent claim Poisson processes of rates ${\lambda }_i$ merge into a Poisson process of rate $\lambda ={\sum }_i{\lambda }_i$, by the Superposition theorem for Poisson point processes. The merged claim law is a mixture distribution of the individual claim laws with weights ${\lambda }_i/\lambda$. Equivalently, multiplication of the individual compound-Poisson transforms produces $\exp (\lambda [{\sum }_i({\lambda }_i/\lambda )M_i(r)-1])$.

For nonnegative matter and coasting-fluid densities, $0\le {\Omega }_m\le 1$. Since $a\le {\Omega }_m+(1-{\Omega }_m)a\le 1$ on the normalized integration interval, the age integrand lies between $\sqrt{a}$ and one. The age of a flat matter-coasting-fluid universe therefore decreases monotonically with the matter fraction and stays between the pure-fluid endpoint ages.

A closed half-space consists of a hyperplane and one of its two sides in a real affine space. Replacing the weak inequality by a strict inequality gives an open half-space. Half-spaces are convex sets, and finite intersections of closed half-spaces are linear polyhedra.

An adiabatic perturbation obeys ${\Delta }_r=(4/3){\Delta }_c$. In a radiation background this makes the cold-matter density equation ${\Delta }_c^{\prime \prime }+{\Delta }_c^{\prime }/\tau =4{\Delta }_c/{\tau }^2$, whose growing solution is ${\tau }^2$. In a matter background it instead becomes ${\Delta }_c^{\prime \prime }+2{\Delta }_c^{\prime }/\tau =6{\Delta }_c/{\tau }^2$, with the same growing conformal-time exponent and a different scale-factor dependence.

For a nontrivial additive character $\psi$ on a local field, the character annihilator of an additive subgroup $H$ is $H^{\perp }=\{y:\psi (xy)=1\text{ for all }x\in H\}$. If ${\mathcal{O}}_F^{\perp }={\pi }^c{\mathcal{O}}_F$, then $({\pi }^n{\mathcal{O}}_F{)}^{\perp }={\pi }^{c-n}{\mathcal{O}}_F$. This is a character pairing construction, distinct from the annihilator of a module.

A completely additive arithmetic function satisfies $f(mn)=f(m)+f(n)$ for all positive $m,n$, equivalently $f(p^k)=kf(p)$. The total number of prime factors is an example.

An additive arithmetic function $f$ is strongly additive when $f(p^k)=f(p)$ for every prime number $p$ and every positive integer $k$. Its value therefore depends only on the distinct prime factors:The prime omega function is an example: $\omega (12)=\omega (6)=2$, because both integers have the same prime factors, namely $2$ and $3$. By contrast, the total number of prime factors is a completely additive function and counts multiplicity, giving $\Omega (12)=3$ and $\Omega (6)=2$. When $n=1$, there are no prime factors, so the empty sum gives $f(1)=0$.

For an additive arithmetic function, the model mean is $A_f(x)={\sum }_{p^k\le x}f(p^k)(1-1/p)/p^k$. The exact uniform expectation differs by $O(x^{-1}{\sum }_{p^k\le x}|f(p^k)|)$.

An acoustic monopole represents unsteady mass or volume injection. A moving-interface mass-flux defect contributes ${\partial }_t(Q{\delta }_s)$ to the density wave equation.

An acoustic dipole represents an applied force density. A surface force defect contributes $-{\partial }_i(L_i{\delta }_s)$ to the density wave equation.

An acoustic quadrupole has forcing ${\partial }_i{\partial }_j{T}_{ij}$. The acoustic compact-source approximation reduces its leading far-field density to $n_i{n}_j{\ddot{S}}_{ij}/(4\pi c_0^{4}r)$ in three dimensions, with $S_{ij}=\int T_{ij}{d}^{3}y$ evaluated at retarded time.

An accretion-disk boundary layer connects nearly Keplerian rotation to a stellar surface rotating at a different angular speed. For a slowly rotating star, dissipation of the incoming orbital kinetic energy gives $L_{\mathrm{BL}}\simeq GM\dot{M}/(2r_{\ast })$, comparable to the standard thin-disk luminosity. If the emitting area scales as $r_{\ast }H$, its blackbody effective temperature scales as $T_{\mathrm{BL}}\sim (r_{\ast }/H{)}^{1/4}{T}_{\mathrm{in}}$. The coefficient depends on geometry, and stellar rotation reduces the available energy.

Let $K:U\to V$ be a bounded linear operator from a real Banach space to a real Hilbert space, and let $J$ be a proper lower-semicontinuous convex absolutely one-homogeneous functional on $U$. The normalization and source relation imply $\lambda =J(u_{\lambda })$ by the Euler identity for a convex one-homogeneous functional. For the norm penalty $J(u)=\Vert u\Vert$ on a Hilbert space, its nonzero-point subgradient is $u/\Vert u\Vert$. Hence $K^{\ast }K{u}_{\lambda }=u_{\lambda }/\Vert u_{\lambda }{\Vert }^2$: $v=u_{\lambda }/\Vert u_{\lambda }\Vert$ is a right singular vector with singular value $\sigma =1/\Vert u_{\lambda }\Vert$, and $K{u}_{\lambda }$ is the corresponding left singular vector. Thus the definition recovers the ordinary operator singular-vector relation using the one-homogeneous norm penalty. Uniqueness of the vector from its data requires extra hypotheses on $K$ and $J$.

The planetary contribution to absolute vorticity is supplied by the rotating frame. Its local vertical component is the Coriolis parameter $f=2\Omega \sin \varphi$. On a beta plane, motion with northward velocity $v$ changes this contribution at the rate $\beta v$.

The trivial absolute value on a field is zero at zero and one elsewhere. Its metric topology is discrete. Its valuation ring and residue field are both the field itself. This is why rational absolute-value classification and nontrivial discrete-value compactness criteria need a nontriviality hypothesis.

The metric completion of a field for an absolute value on a field is formed from Cauchy sequences modulo sequences tending to zero. Addition and multiplication extend continuously, and every nonzero completed element is invertible, so the result remains a field. The absolute value on a field extends uniquely. A place of a number field determines the corresponding completion $K_v$.

The absolute frequency is the generally complex angular frequency at the physically selected absolute wavenumber. Its imaginary part is the fixed-position exponential growth rate under the convention $e^{-i\omega t}$. Marginal zero exponential growth may still carry an algebraic prefactor.