For a smooth real phase decreasing away from its endpoint maximum, put $t=\varphi (a)-\varphi (x)$ and write the transformed amplitude as $G(t)=-g(x(t))/{\varphi }^{\prime }(x(t))$. Its first two Taylor coefficients are $G(0)=-g(a)/{\varphi }^{\prime }(a)$ and $G^{\prime }(0)=g^{\prime }(a)/{\varphi }^{\prime }(a{)}^2-g(a){\varphi }^{\prime \prime }(a)/{\varphi }^{\prime }(a{)}^3$. Applying Watson lemma gives the displayed two-term Laplace integral expansion. Localization and a Taylor remainder estimate justify termwise integration.

A unique nondegenerate interior minimum does not by itself ensure that a integral treated by Laplace's method is localized there. A sufficient condition is a positive gap above the minimum outside every sufficiently small fixed neighbourhood, together with finiteness of the integral for some positive exponent. The exterior contribution is then exponentially negligible. Without localization, $g(y)=y^2(1-y{)}^4$ on $(-1,1)$ has its unique interior minimum at zero with $g^{\prime \prime }(0)=2$, but its boundary contribution is at least $e^{-1}{n}^{-1/4}$ and dominates the nominal $n^{-1/2}$ interior Gaussian contribution.

For a smooth phase and a continuous amplitude nonzero at a unique interior maximum with positive-definite negative Hessian matrix, a quadratic expansion and rescaling by $\sqrt{n}$ give the displayed Gaussian integral, provided the tails are negligible. In a regular Bayesian inference it approximates the integrated likelihood by the likelihood at its dominant point times the prior density and inverse square root of local curvature. Boundary modes, singular Hessians, and multiple equally dominant modes need modified formulas.

Consider $I(\lambda )={\int }_a^{b}A(t)e^{-\lambda \varphi (t)}dt$ with a smooth nonnegative phase positive in the interior and zero only at the endpoints. Suppose, in inward endpoint coordinates $s$,where $c_2,c_3>0$. The rescalings $s={\lambda }^{-1/3}u$ and $s={\lambda }^{-1/2}u$ and the Gamma integral giveThe first two terms therefore come from different endpoints. The absent quartic phase term and linear amplitude term at the cubic endpoint are essential for the stated remainder: either can produce a ${\lambda }^{-2/3}$ correction. Smoothness, the compact interval and positivity away from the endpoints justify localization and the termwise error estimates. Without those cancellations the two leading scales remain the same when their amplitudes are nonzero, but the next error is generally $O({\lambda }^{-2/3})$.

For $H=p^2/2-\kappa /r$, the angular momentum and Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector obey $\{K_i,K_j\}=-2H{ϵ}_{ijk}{L}_k$. On negative or positive energy regions use $K/\sqrt{|2H|}$ to obtain the compact or Lorentz Lie algebra, respectively. At zero energy the algebra on the characteristic orbit quotient is the Euclidean motion algebra. Global group actions require complete generators or collision regularization; simply replacing $H$ by a constant inside a Hamiltonian-vector-field derivative is not valid on the unreduced energy hypersurface.

Choose an orthonormal basis $e_i$ of the tangent space at $p$ and the unit-speed geodesics with initial velocities $e_i$. Their covariant accelerations vanish, so $(f\circ {\gamma }_i{)}^{\prime \prime }(0)={\mathrm{Hess}}_{g}f(e_i,e_i)$. Taking the metric trace of the Riemannian Hessian proves the formula for $\Delta =\mathrm{div}\nabla$. The positive Laplace-Beltrami operator has the opposite sign.

Writing $D_r=\mathbf{x}\cdot \nabla =r{\partial }_r$, the spherical-coordinate Laplacian gives $r^2\Delta =D_r^2+D_r+{\Delta }_{S^2}$. Thus the positive angular Laplace-Beltrami operator has the displayed Cartesian expression and eigenvalues $l(l+1)$ on spherical harmonics. Omitting $D_r$ is incorrect when the square means composition: on $x_1$, the truncated expression gives $x_1$, whereas the degree-one angular eigenvalue is two.

// Target: fluid-mechanics.bigb

Use the positive Laplace-Beltrami operator ${\Delta }_{+}=-{\mathrm{div}}_g{\mathrm{grad}}_g$. On a closed manifold of positive dimension, its self-adjoint realization has a discrete spectrumcounted with the finite dimensions of the Laplacian eigenspaces. The zero eigenspace consists of functions constant on each connected component. On the unit circle, $-d^2/d{\theta }^2$ has eigenvalue zero once and eigenvalues $k^2$ twice for every integer $k\ge 1$, represented by sine and cosine modes.

The opposite convention $\Delta ={\mathrm{div}}_g{\mathrm{grad}}_g$, used in the coordinate formula for the Laplace-Beltrami operator, negates these eigenvalues. Specifying the sign is therefore part of specifying the spectrum.

On a compact manifold with boundary, Dirichlet boundary conditions or Neumann boundary conditions give corresponding discrete self-adjoint spectra. On a noncompact manifold, continuous spectrum can occur. The operator domain and any boundary conditions belong to the spectral problem, rather than being determined by the local differential formula alone.

An expression in normal form admits no further reductions. A term is strongly normalizing when every reduction sequence from it terminates; weak normalization requires only one terminating sequence. Strong normalization theorem for simply typed lambda calculus establishes the stronger property for well-typed terms.

Church encoding represents data and operations as terms of the lambda calculus. A Church numeral represents a natural number by repeated function application; a Church Boolean selects one of two arguments.

A lambda model interprets variables, lambda application and lambda abstraction so that capture-avoiding substitution agrees with environments and all beta equivalence equations hold. A reflexive domain gives such an interpretation. Validity of eta conversion requires an extra inverse law and does not follow merely from a retraction.

An adiabatic fluid perturbation preserves the specific entropy of each displaced parcel. For a perfect gas, mass conservation gives $\Delta \rho =-\rho \nabla \cdot \mathbf{\xi }$ and the adiabatic equation of state gives $\Delta p=\gamma p\Delta \rho /\rho$. The corresponding Eulerian perturbation of a fluid variable is $\delta p=-\gamma p\nabla \cdot \mathbf{\xi }-\mathbf{\xi }\cdot \nabla p$. An isothermal equilibrium may still have adiabatic perturbations, because the thermodynamic constraint on displaced parcels differs from the equilibrium temperature profile.

Divisibility of a proposed subgroup order is necessary by Lagrange's theorem but is not sufficient in arbitrary finite groups. The alternating group $A_4$ has order $12$ and no subgroup of order $6$. Such a subgroup would have index two, hence be a normal subgroup. The quotient would have order two, so every element of order three would map to its identity. But $A_4$ has eight distinct three-cycles, which together with the identity cannot fit in a subgroup of order six. This obstruction contrasts with cyclic groups, which have a subgroup of every divisor order.

The L-function of a Hecke character is initially the displayed Euler product over prime ideals away from its conductor. The equivalent Dirichlet series sums $\psi (\mathfrak{a})N{\mathfrak{a}}^{-s}$ over integral ideals prime to the conductor. For a CM elliptic curve with its endomorphisms defined over the base, its Hasse-Weil L-function factors into the two conjugate Hecke L-functions.

For an elliptic curve over a number field, its Hasse-Weil L-function is the product of the local factors determined by its Tate module. At a good finite place, the factor is $(1-a_{v}N{v}^{-s}+N{v}^{1-2s}{)}^{-1}$, with $a_v=Nv+1-\#E(\kappa (v))$. At a bad place use the inertia-invariant subspace and an auxiliary prime different from the residue characteristic. For a CM elliptic curve with all endomorphisms defined over the base, this factors as the product of the two conjugate Hecke L-functions.

The Hasse–Weil zeta function of an algebraic variety over a number field is assembled from local point-counting factors at finite places. At a good place with residue field of size $q$, the factor is $Z(V_q,q^{-s})$, where $Z(V_q,T)=\exp ({\sum }_{n\ge 1}\#V_q({\mathbb{F}}_{q^n})T^n/n)$. Defining all bad-place factors requires a specified integral model or convention. The zeta function of an elliptic curve over a finite field is a local factor, rather than this global product.

Reflect a vacuum gravitational potential in the upper half-space evenly across $z=0$. For the convention in which gravitational acceleration is $\nabla \psi$, the derivative jump is $2{\partial }_z\psi (R,0^{+})=-4\pi G\Sigma (R)$. Thus a point mass $m$ below the plane produces a Kuzmin disk, and superposing point masses with weight $\mu (b)db$ produces $\Sigma (R)=(2\pi {)}^{-1}{\int }_0^{\infty }b\mu (b)(R^2+b^2{)}^{-3/2}db$. Positive weights give a nonnegative surface density wherever the integral converges.

Fix zero mean and period $P$ in the Kuramoto-Sivashinsky equation. At $P=2\pi$ the first Fourier mode becomes neutral and all higher modes are damped. For $k=2\pi /P$, expand $u=a\sin (kx)+b\sin (2kx)+\cdots$. The first equations are $\dot{a}={\lambda }_{1}a+kab/2+\cdots$, $\dot{b}={\lambda }_{2}b-k{a}^2/2+\cdots$, with ${\lambda }_j=(jk{)}^2-(jk{)}^4$. Slaving the second harmonic gives $\dot{a}={\lambda }_{1}a+k^2{a}^3/(4{\lambda }_2)+\cdots$. Since ${\lambda }_2=-12$ at onset, this is a supercritical bifurcation. The small nonzero branch is stable in the sense of orbital stability against disturbances of the same fixed period, modulo translation; stability against disturbances of larger period does not follow from this local argument.

For a cyclic Galois extension $M/K$ of degree $m$, choose a generator $g$ and a primitive $m$th root of unity $\zeta \in K$. Reindexing the displayed sum gives $gR(w)=\zeta R(w)$. Linear independence of distinct field embeddings ensures this sum is not identically zero as a function of $w$. Choosing $\alpha =R(w)\ne 0$ therefore gives $m$ distinct conjugates ${\zeta }^j\alpha$, while ${\alpha }^m\in K$. Consequently $M=K(\alpha )$ is the splitting field of $X^m-{\alpha }^m$. Independence follows by taking a shortest supposed linear relation among distinct automorphisms, evaluating at $uv$ and subtracting a suitable multiple of the relation at $v$ to remove one term but not all terms.

For a number field and finite subgroup $\Delta \subset K^{\ast }/K^{\ast n}$, adjoining all the indicated nth roots gives an extension unramified outside the displayed finite set. The valuations modulo $n$ are independent of representatives. At a finite place outside $S$, divide each radicand by a local nth power of a uniformizer to obtain a unit. Its polynomial has separable reduction because $n$ is invertible. A finite unramified extension containing all residue roots contains all lifted roots by Hensel's lemma. This proof does not require ${\mu }_n\subset K$.