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Supergravity is a theory with local supersymmetry and necessarily contains gravity.

Soft supersymmetry breaking adds operators of positive mass dimension that break supersymmetry without reintroducing new ultraviolet quadratic divergences.

Four-dimensional $\mathcal{N}=1$ supersymmetry has one Weyl-spinor supercharge and four real supercharges.

Gauge/gravity duality relates a quantum field theory without dynamical gravity to a gravitational or string theory in one additional emergent dimension.

Bosonic string theory quantizes a relativistic string using only bosonic worldsheet fields. Lorentz-invariant quantization requires 26-dimensional target spacetime and contains a tachyonic ground state.

A superfluid exhibits superfluidity, with phase stiffness and a phase-gradient current. In an appropriate ordered or quasi-ordered regime it supports low-speed flow without viscous dissipation, and its long-wavelength Goldstone boson has a sound-like dispersion. True thermodynamic phase selection and Bose-Einstein condensation need separate infrared conditions.

Quantum magnetism studies collective phases and excitations of interacting quantum spins.

A phase-space distribution function gives the occupation density of particles as a function of position and momentum. For a spatially homogeneous gas it depends only on momentum.

A critical phenomenon is scale-invariant behavior near a continuous phase transition, described by universal critical exponents.

Up to volume-independent terms, $F=-N{k}_{B}T\log V$, so $-\partial F/\partial V=N{k}_{B}T/V$.

An isothermal noninteracting gas in potential $mgz$ has an exponential vertical density and scale height $k_{B}T/(mg)$.

The canonical ensemble is the probability distribution for a system in thermal equilibrium with a heat bath at fixed temperature $T$, with fixed particle number and external parameters. It allows energy exchange, so individual energy measurements fluctuate. With Boltzmann constant $k_B$ and inverse temperature $\beta =1/(k_{B}T)$,The heat bath is idealized as large enough that exchanges barely change its temperature; coupling must permit equilibration while contributing negligible interaction energy. A finite heat bath approximates this description only when its temperature change is negligible over the relevant exchanges. Strong coupling or a small heat bath can require a different description.

For one two-level system at positive temperature, the Boltzmann weights are $1,e^{-\beta \Delta }$, henceAt $\beta \Delta =\ln 3$, $Z_1=4/3$ and $p=1/4$. This is a probabilistic thermal mixed state. For quantum levels, its density matrix is $\rho =(1-p)|0⟩⟨0|+p|1⟩⟨1|$. The pure state $\sqrt{1-p}|0⟩+\sqrt{p}|1⟩$ has the same energy measurement probabilities, but also has quantum coherence between the energy eigenstates. Matching those probabilities does not make the states equivalent.

For an additive system with short-range interactions and a regular extensive entropy, microcanonical, canonical, and grand canonical predictions agree for bulk observables in the thermodynamic limit because relative fluctuations vanish. Equivalence can fail for finite systems, long-range interactions, or at singular phase-coexistence points.

At fixed temperature, volume, and chemical potential, the grand canonical ensemble permits both energy and particle number to fluctuate and weights a state by $e^{-\beta (E-\mu N)}$.

The microcanonical ensemble assigns equal probability to accessible states in a narrow energy shell at fixed energy, volume, and particle number.

For a discrete probability distribution over microstates, the Gibbs entropy is

Thermodynamics studies energy transfers and the constraints on macroscopic changes. Its vocabulary connects internal energy, entropy, temperature, pressure and volume to heat and work. The first law of thermodynamics balances energy; the Second law of thermodynamics decides which changes can occur spontaneously and limits how much work a heat engine can deliver. These principles let us bound performance before choosing a material or a detailed machine design. Applications include power generation, propulsion and refrigerators. ^[ref]

Start by choosing a system boundary. A closed system can exchange energy but no matter; an isolated system exchanges neither. A state function, such as internal energy or entropy, depends on the equilibrium state. A process specifies how that state changes. Thus a body's temperature is a property it has, whereas heat records energy crossing its boundary during a process. A body contains internal energy, rather than a stored quantity of heat.

Two insulated bodies initially at different positive temperatures approach thermal equilibrium when brought into thermal contact. Their combined energy is conserved, but their combined entropy increases. They do not spontaneously separate again into a hotter body and a colder one. This familiar asymmetry makes thermodynamics interesting: conserving energy leaves many imaginable changes available, and entropy supplies a further constraint. The same distinction underlies both entropy maximization under thermal contact and the thermal efficiency limit in Carnot's theorem.

For photons in thermal equilibrium at temperature $T$, Planck's law gives the photon number density per frequency interval. In terms of the Planck function, it is $dn/d\nu =4\pi B_{\nu }(T)/(ch\nu )$, hence

An ideal quantum gas has mean occupationwith one sign for bosons and the other for fermions.

This counts microstates sharing a macrostate; when the shared quantity is energy, it gives the multiplicity of degenerate energy levels. The degeneracy $g(l)$ of a macrostate labelled by $l$ is the number of distinct microstates having that value of $l$.