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Effective porosity is the pore-volume fraction accessible to connected transport under the specified measurement or model. It excludes isolated pore volume and may also exclude poorly exchanging regions on the transport timescale, so $0\le {\varphi }_e\le \varphi$ for total porosity $\varphi$. In a simple mobile-volume model the mean pore velocity is $q/{\varphi }_e$; the assumptions behind that model matter when interpreting tracer arrival times. A sample with total porosity $0.25$ but mobile pore fraction $0.20$ and Darcy flux $2.0\times 10^{-5}\mathrm{m}{\mathrm{s}}^{-1}$ has mobile mean pore velocity $1.0\times 10^{-4}\mathrm{m}{\mathrm{s}}^{-1}$. Woessner and Poeter discuss the role of connectivity and slowly exchanging pores.^[ref]

For a nonnegative random constant individual hazard $\Lambda$, write $M_k(t)=\mathbb{E}[{\Lambda }^k{e}^{-\Lambda t}]$. The population survivor function is $M_0$ and its hazard is $M_1/M_0$. Under the integrability needed to differentiate, $M_k^{\prime }=-M_{k+1}$, soThe conditional distribution is weighted by $e^{-\Lambda t}$. This proves decreasing population hazard without any decrease in individual hazards and explains survival selection in a heterogeneous population.

For monotone missing data, let $R_{ij}$ indicate observation and let ${\rho }_{ij}$ be the product of the conditional retention probabilities through visit $j$. Under sequential missing at random, conditioning on the complete response history makes these retention probabilities depend only on the history already observed at each decision. Therefore $\mathbb{E}(R_{ij}/{\rho }_{ij}\mid Y_i,X_i)=1$. Weighting a working-independence generalized estimating equation by $R_{ij}/{\rho }_{ij}$ restores its mean-zero property. This needs correct retention probabilities, positivity and regularity; uncertainty must account for estimating the weights.

For simply connected $Y$, rational Hurewicz homomorphism identifies ${\pi }_{\ast }(\Omega Y)\otimes \mathbb{Q}$ with the primitive elements of a Hopf algebra of $H_{\ast }(\Omega Y;\mathbb{Q})$ and induces an isomorphism $U({\pi }_{\ast }(\Omega Y)\otimes \mathbb{Q})\cong H_{\ast }(\Omega Y;\mathbb{Q})$ of graded Hopf algebras. The bracket on homotopy is the Samelson product. The underlying algebra theorem says that a connected graded cocommutative Hopf algebra over characteristic zero is the universal enveloping algebra of its primitive Lie algebra. These statements let a free tensor algebra of loop-space homology detect a free graded Lie algebra of homotopy.

The character group of a topological group that is an abelian group consists of its continuous group homomorphisms to the circle group, with pointwise multiplication. For a finite group, all characters are continuous and their values are roots of unity, so this agrees with the character group of a finite abelian group.

For a locally compact Hausdorff Abelian group $G$, its Pontryagin dual is the group of continuous unitary characters, with pointwise multiplication and the compact-open topology. Its topology agrees with the Gelfand topology of the L1 convolution algebra. It is again a locally compact Hausdorff Abelian group.

// Target: analysis.bigb

For a gas-pressure-supported polytrope of index five with uniform mean molecular weight, $T/T_c=\theta$. A specific stellar energy-generation rate $ϵ={ϵ}_0\rho T^q$ therefore integrates to $4\pi {ϵ}_0{\alpha }^3{\rho }_c^2{T}_c^q{\int }_0^{\infty }{\xi }^2{\theta }^{10+q}d\xi$. Substituting $u=\xi /\sqrt{3+{\xi }^2}$ gives the displayed formula, convergent for $q>-7$. At $q=11$ its dimensionless coefficient is approximately $1.02942$. The scale factor is a volume, ${\alpha }^3$, rather than an area.

A level-one modular form with rational Fourier coefficients is a weighted homogeneous polynomial with rational coefficients in the normalized Eisenstein series $E_4,E_6$. Subtract its constant coefficient times a same-weight monomial. The remainder is a cusp form; divide it by ${\Delta }_0=(E_4^3-E_6^2)/1728=q+O(q^2)$. The valence formula for the modular group shows that ${\Delta }_0$ has no interior zeros, so this quotient is holomorphic and has rational coefficients. Induction on weight proves the assertion. Euler's Bernoulli number formula for even zeta values then gives the corresponding rational weighted polynomial in the unnormalized lattice Eisenstein sums $G_4,G_6$.

Let $P_w(E_4,E_6)$ be weighted homogeneous of modular weight $w$, and suppose ${\sum }_w{P}_w(z)=0$ as a holomorphic function. Apply the modular group matrices $\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ n& 1\end{array}\right)$. At a fixed point $z$ in the complex upper half-plane, this gives ${\sum }_w(nz+1{)}^w{P}_w(z)=0$ for every integer $n$. A polynomial with infinitely many roots vanishes identically, so every $P_w(z)=0$. Within one modular weight, the monomials reduce to powers of $E_4^3/E_6^2$, after taking out a common factor. This ratio is nonconstant, as its Fourier expansion begins $1+1728q+\cdots$, so its powers are linearly independent. This proves algebraic independence even when the generators are regarded as analytic functions rather than elements of a formal graded ring.

In characteristic zero, averaging over a compact group, or over a Zariski-dense compact form of a complex reductive group, gives a degree-preserving projection onto the polynomial invariant ring. Its module property is $\mathcal{R}(af)=a\mathcal{R}(f)$ for invariant $a$. This property turns finite ideal generation in the ambient polynomial ring into finite algebra generation of the invariant subring.

For a finite-dimensional rational representation of a complex reductive algebraic group, choose finitely many homogeneous positive-degree invariants generating the ideal generated by all positive-degree invariants in the ambient polynomial ring. Such a finite set exists because a polynomial ring is Noetherian. Apply the Reynolds operator on a polynomial invariant ring to an expression for any homogeneous invariant in that ideal. Its coefficients become invariants of smaller degree, so induction proves that the chosen set generates the entire invariant ring as an algebra.

The action $(x,y)\mapsto (\zeta x,{\zeta }^{-1}y)$ has invariant monomials exactly when their two exponents differ by a multiple of $n$. Every such monomial is a product of $x^n,y^n,xy$. Reducing by $uv=w^n$ leaves the monomials $w^j$, $u^i{w}^j$ and $v^i{w}^j$ with $i\ge 1$; their images are distinct monomials in $x,y$, proving that this is the only relation. The map $(x,y)\mapsto (x^n,y^n,xy)$ is finite and its fibres are the finite-group orbits, so the hypersurface is the geometric quotient.

// Destination: ringed-space.bigb

A properly discontinuous group action by isometries of a finitely generated group on a complete $n$-dimensional Riemannian manifold of nonnegative Ricci curvature yields the displayed group growth bound. Distinct orbit points are uniformly separated, while a word of length $m$ moves a basepoint by at most $Dm$. Pack disjoint equal-volume small balls about the orbit points into $B(p,Dm+\epsilon )$ and apply the Bishop-Gromov inequality. A finite point stabilizer contributes its order to the bound; freeness is unnecessary.

A finitely generated group of isometries acting properly discontinuously on a complete connected $n$-dimensional Riemannian manifold with nonnegative Ricci curvature has polynomial growth of a group of degree at most $n$. Choose $\rho >0$ so distinct points of an orbit are separated by more than $2\rho$. Let $L$ be the largest displacement of the base point by a generator. The radius-$m$ word metric ball maps into the metric ball of radius $Lm$, with fibers of size the finite stabilizer $|{\Gamma }_p|$. Disjoint radius-$\rho$ balls around these orbit points have equal volume and fit inside the ball of radius $Lm+\rho$. The Bishop-Gromov inequality bounds their number by $(1+Lm/\rho {)}^n$, giving the displayed estimate.

A tree on $P$ is a subset of ${\bigcup }_{n\ge 0}{P}^n$ closed under initial segments. It is closed when each finite level is closed in the corresponding product topology, and well-founded when it has no infinite branch. A countable-basis approximation tree, with nested sets of shrinking diameter, reduces a closed well-founded tree on a Polish space to a countable well-founded tree and bounds its height by a countable ordinal.

Fix a lattice, a bilinear polarization and Hodge numbers. The period domain consists of the Hodge filtrations with these dimensions satisfying orthogonality, opposition and positivity. It is an open subset of its compact dual of a period domain, described algebraically by the dimensions and orthogonality conditions alone.

Tensor the prequantum bundle with a square root of the canonical determinant bundle of a polarization, when such a square root exists. The half-form contributes to the state pairing and to the observable action. It improves coordinate invariance and accounts for familiar Maslov and oscillator zero-point shifts. Its existence is additional global data, not automatic from prequantum integrality.

The pairing compares state spaces belonging to two polarizations using their prequantum sections and half-forms. When it defines a suitable identification or projection, a classical Hamiltonian flow can transport a state to its transported polarization and the pairing can return it to the original state space. Differentiating this construction supplies operators for some observables that do not directly preserve the original polarization. Existence, domains and unitarity require additional hypotheses; it is not a universal canonical equivalence of all polarizations.

A sphere of conductivity $a_1$ in a host $a_0$ under a uniform incident gradient $E$ has interior gradient $3a_{0}E/(a_1+2a_0)$. Outside a sphere of radius $R$, its potential correction is $-R^3(a_1-a_0)(E\cdot x)/[(a_1+2a_0)|x{|}^3]$. Its polarization is $\beta E$ inside and zero outside. Temperature and normal-flux continuity determine these coefficients.

The exciting field excludes an inclusion's own singular dipole field. Other inclusions and periodic images supply the regular correction at its centre $y$. The angular mean of a self-dipole gradient on a concentric sphere vanishes, while the mean-value property recovers the regular field at the centre. Consequently a spherical average can recover the exciting field, even though the total pointwise field is not constant on that sphere.