Einstein field equations ($G_{\mu \nu }+\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }=8\pi G{T}_{\mu \nu }/c^4$)

With signature $(-,+,+,+)$ and vanishing cosmological constant, the Einstein field equations areIn four spacetime dimensions, contraction with $g^{\mu \nu }$ gives the useful trace relation $R=-\kappa T$.

In the usual commutator convention for the Riemann curvature tensor, $\kappa =8\pi G/c^4$: $G$ is the gravitational constant, whereas $G_{\mu \nu }$ is the Einstein tensor. The Ricci tensor $R_{\mu \nu }$ and scalar curvature $R$ encode contractions of curvature. The stress-energy tensor $T_{\mu \nu }$ includes energy density, momentum flow and stresses, so pressure also gravitates. A cosmological constant adds $\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }$ to the left-hand side. See Tong's Einstein equations and matter coupling.

For a concrete consequence, set $T_{\mu \nu }=0$ and $\Lambda =0$. The trace gives $R=0$, and substitution gives $R_{\mu \nu }=0$. Yet the exterior Schwarzschild spacetime still has the tidal forces computed under geodesic deviation: vanishing Ricci tensor does not imply vanishing Riemann curvature tensor. Geometry carries gravitational effects through empty space. Einstein presented the final matter equations on 25 November 1915, including the essential trace correction, in Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation, pages 844-847, especially equation (2a). His symbols and sign conventions differ from modern ones; the displayed formula uses modern notation.

In four dimensions, the contracted Bianchi identity gives $(1/2-\alpha ){\partial }_{\mu }R=-\kappa {\nabla }^{\nu }{T}_{\mu \nu }$ for the displayed equation. Its trace is $(1-4\alpha )R=-\kappa T$. For $\alpha \ne 1/4$,Compatibility with covariant stress-energy conservation for unrestricted conventional matter therefore requires $\alpha =1/2$, yielding the Einstein tensor. Other coefficients impose constant trace on conserved sources. The exceptional $\alpha =1/4$ equation instead requires $T=0$; conservation additionally makes $R$ constant. A trace-free equation sourced by $T_{\mu \nu }-g_{\mu \nu }T/4$ is a different system and does not impose vanishing matter trace.

With signature $(+---)$, let $R^a{}_{bcd}={\partial }_d{\Gamma }^a{}_{bc}-{\partial }_c{\Gamma }^a{}_{bd}-{\Gamma }^a{}_{pc}{\Gamma }^p{}_{bd}+{\Gamma }^a{}_{pd}{\Gamma }^p{}_{bc}$ and $R_{ab}=R^c{}_{acb}$. This curvature is the negative of the convention in which $[{\nabla }_c,{\nabla }_d]X^a=R^a{}_{bcd}{X}^b$. The physical Einstein field equations are $G_{ab}+\Lambda g_{ab}=-8\pi G{T}_{ab}/c^4$. In a static weak field $R_{00}=-{\nabla }^2\Phi /c^2$; the trace-reversed equation then reproduces the Poisson equation ${\nabla }^2\Phi =4\pi G{\rho }_{\mathrm{mass}}$. Metric variation of $\int \sqrt{-g}(R-2\Lambda )/(2\kappa )+S_m$ gives the same sign when $\delta S_m=\int \sqrt{-g}{T}_{ab}\delta g^{ab}/2$.

Assume a metric theory in four dimensions, a Levi-Civita connection, covariant stress-energy conservation and field equations linear in second metric derivatives. The contracted Bianchi identity selects $G_{ab}=R_{ab}-g_{ab}R/2$. Its trace-reversed equation is $R_{ab}=\kappa (T_{ab}-g_{ab}T/2)+\Lambda g_{ab}$. In the convention $R_{00}\simeq -{\nabla }^2\phi$ and signature $(+---)$, nonrelativistic matter gives $R_{00}\simeq \kappa \rho /2$. The Poisson equation ${\nabla }^2\phi =4\pi G\rho$ fixes $\kappa =-8\pi G$. Reversing the curvature convention reverses this displayed coupling sign without changing the physical theory. The strong equivalence principle alone does not establish uniqueness without the stated additional assumptions.

With the metric and stress-energy tensor fixed and zero cosmological constant, changing the sign convention for the Riemann curvature tensor changes the signs of the Ricci tensor, scalar curvature and Einstein tensor. The same physical field equation is therefore written with the opposite coupling sign. For signature $(+---)$, the convention $R^a{}_{bcd}={\partial }_d{\Gamma }_{bc}^a-{\partial }_c{\Gamma }_{bd}^a-{\Gamma }_{ec}^a{\Gamma }_{bd}^e+{\Gamma }_{ed}^a{\Gamma }_{bc}^e$ and $R_{ab}=R^c{}_{acb}$ gives $R_{00}\simeq -\Delta \Phi$ in a static Newtonian limit. The trace-reversed equation and $\Delta \Phi =4\pi G\rho$ then require $G_{ab}=-8\pi G{T}_{ab}$.

This metric has $R_{ab}=-3g_{ab}$ and cosmological constant $\Lambda =-3$ in unit curvature-radius normalization. Its regular static coframe is real when $F>0$ and $z\ne 0$. Setting $q=\alpha z^3$, its six independent curvature 2-form coefficients are $-(1-q)$ in the $03$ and $12$ planes and $-(1+q/2)$ in the other four planes. Their Ricci contractions cancel $q$. The Weyl tensor squared invariant is $12{\alpha }^2{z}^6$, so nonzero $\alpha$ does not give constant sectional curvature despite the Einstein equation.

In four dimensions, a local natural symmetric divergence-free metric tensor involving the metric and its derivatives of at most second order has the Lovelock form $a{G}_{ab}+b{g}_{ab}$ with constant coefficients. Generic nonlinear metric f(R) gravity instead has fourth-order terms and does not meet that derivative-order hypothesis. For affine $f$, the metric field equation is precisely of Lovelock form.

In a region with vanishing stress-energy tensor, the Einstein field equations reduce to $R_{\mu \nu }=0$ when the cosmological constant vanishes.

A vacuum spacetime has vanishing matter stress-energy tensor. In $D>2$ dimensions, tracing the Vacuum Einstein equations gives $R=2D\Lambda /(D-2)$ and hence $R_{ab}=2\Lambda g_{ab}/(D-2)$; in four dimensions this reduces to $R_{ab}=\Lambda g_{ab}$. With zero cosmological constant it is Ricci flat, although its full Riemann curvature tensor can be nonzero: a vacuum Kerr black hole and vacuum gravitational waves illustrate that distinction.

The Einstein-Hilbert action is the integral of the Ricci scalar against the metric volume form. Varying it with respect to the metric gives the vacuum Einstein field equations, up to a boundary term.

An independent vierbein and metric-compatible spin connection allow spin density to source a torsion tensor. The connection equation from the Einstein-Hilbert action is algebraic in torsion. In the absence of connection-dependent matter it fixes the Levi-Civita connection. For a minimally coupled Dirac field, eliminating the connection generates a local four-fermion interaction. Thus its equivalent torsion-free second-order action includes this contact term; simply dropping it defines a different matter theory.

Solve the algebraic connection equation for $\hat{\omega }(e,\chi )$, but perform the remaining variations as though the connection were independent. The chain-rule contribution $(\delta S/\delta \omega )\delta \hat{\omega }$ vanishes on that solution. The resulting equations are those of the connection-eliminated second-order action. This is especially useful for local supersymmetry calculations, where the gravitino-induced contorsion is quadratic in fermions and the omitted induced connection variation would otherwise be lengthy.

Use $K_{abc}=e_a{}^{\mu }(\omega -\omega (e){)}_{\mu bc}$ and $T_{abc}=K_{bac}-K_{cab}$. For the symmetrized Dirac action $-e\bar{\chi }{\gamma }^{\mu }{\overleftrightarrow{\nabla }}_{\mu }\chi /2-em\bar{\chi }\chi$, varying the spin connection gives $-e\bar{\chi }{\gamma }^{\mu ab}\chi \delta {\omega }_{\mu ab}/4$. Only totally antisymmetric contorsion is sourced. Its action is $-e{K}^2/(2{\kappa }^2)-e{K}_{abc}\bar{\chi }{\gamma }^{abc}\chi /4$, hence the stated solution. Substitution generates $e{\kappa }^2(\bar{\chi }{\gamma }^{abc}\chi )(\bar{\chi }{\gamma }_{abc}\chi )/32$. The torsion is an auxiliary field, not an independent propagating degree of freedom.

For a nondegenerate orthonormal coframe in spacetime $E^a$ and independent antisymmetric Lorentz connection 1-form, the action $\int {ϵ}_{abc}(R^{ab}\wedge E^c+\lambda E^a\wedge E^b\wedge E^c)$ has independent coframe and connection variations. Since $\delta R^{ab}=D\delta {\omega }^{ab}$, integration by parts yields a connection equation ${ϵ}_{abc}{T}^c=0$. The three variations of the cubic coframe term give the coframe equation ${ϵ}_{abc}(R^{ab}+3\lambda E^a\wedge E^b)=0$. In three dimensions these are exactly the equations displayed above. The solution has constant sectional curvature $K=-3\lambda$. Omitting the factor of three changes the cosmological normalization.

Einstein-Proca theory couples general relativity to a massive vector field governed by the Proca action. Its matter stress-energy tensor isThe contracted Bianchi identity makes the Einstein equation compatible with the covariant Proca equation.

The Proca stress-energy tensor is the metric variation of the matter part of the Proca action. It consists of the electromagnetic stress-energy tensor plus the quadratic mass contribution $m^2(A_a{A}_b-g_{ab}{A}^2/2)$.

Einstein-Maxwell-dilaton theory couples the metric to a scalar field and a Maxwell field with scalar-dependent gauge coupling, typically through $e^{\alpha \Phi }{F}_{ab}{F}^{ab}$. Its Maxwell equation is ${\nabla }_a(e^{\alpha \Phi }{F}^{ab})=0$.

The unit-coupling magnetic solution of Einstein-Maxwell-dilaton theory has $d{s}^2=-Vd{t}^2+V^{-1}d{r}^2+R^{2}d{\Omega }_2^2$, magnetic potential $A=P\cos \theta d\varphi$, and dilaton $\varphi =-\frac{1}{2}\log (1-r_{-}/r)$, where $r_{-}=2P^2/r_{+}$ and $r_{+}>0$. Its physical asymptotic component has $r>r_{-}$. For $0\le r_{-}<r_{+}$ it has a regular Killing horizon at $r_{+}$, area $4\pi r_{+}(r_{+}-r_{-})$ and surface gravity $1/(2r_{+})$. Its asymptotic mass is $r_{+}/2$. For $r_{-}>r_{+}$ the zero-area singularity is naked. The limiting case $r_{-}=r_{+}$ is singular and must not be treated as a regular nondegenerate horizon.

For $r_{-}<r_{+}$, an ingoing chart with $v=t+r_{\ast }$ has metric $-Vd{v}^2+2dvdr+R^{2}d{\Omega }_2^2$. In its future interior, $\nabla r={\partial }_v+V{\partial }_r$ is future timelike, so every future causal curve decreases $r$ and cannot reach future null infinity. The singularity $r=r_{-}$ is spacelike. A Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates extension has the same qualitative Penrose diagram as Schwarzschild spacetime, with two exterior regions, a future black-hole interior and a past white hole interior. The past interior has the same radial interval but is not a black hole region; specifying the radial interval alone does not identify the future component. For $r_{-}>r_{+}$, the physical exterior $r>r_{-}$ has $V>0$ everywhere and outgoing null rays escape from arbitrarily near a timelike naked singularity.

Rotate any geodesic into an equatorial plane of the magnetically charged dilaton black hole. Conserved energy and angular momentum are $E=V\dot{t}$ and $L=R^2\dot{\varphi }$. Normalizing its tangent to $g(\dot{x},\dot{x})=-ϵ$, with $ϵ=1,0,-1$ for timelike, null and spacelike geodesics, gives ${\dot{r}}^2=E^2-V(ϵ+L^2/R^2)$. Thus its radial equation is ${\dot{r}}^2/2+\tilde{V}=0$. Radial null rays have $\dot{r}=\pm E$ and use the same Schwarzschild tortoise coordinate with $2M$ replaced by $r_{+}$.

For $f=1-2M/r$ and squared areal radius $C=r(r-b)$, an equatorial null geodesic obeys ${\dot{r}}^2=E^2[1-B^{2}f/C]$, with impact parameter $B=L/E$. At $b=2M$, $f/C=1/r^2$ in the exterior. Its supremum is $1/(4M^2)$ at the null singular boundary, rather than at a regular exterior photon sphere. Rays with $B>2M$ turn at $r=B$; rays with $B<2M$ reach the boundary. Assuming those rays are absorbed gives the displayed geometric-optics cross-section despite zero limiting horizon area.

For the magnetically charged dilaton black hole, the metric-dual one-form of $k={\partial }_t$ is $k^{♭}=-Vdt$. With orientation $dt\wedge dr\wedge d\theta \wedge d\varphi$, its Hodge star operator gives $\star d{k}^{♭}=-V^{\prime }{R}^2\sin \theta d\theta \wedge d\varphi$. Therefore the Komar mass is $R^2{V}^{\prime }/2=r_{+}/2-P^2/r$. Its radial dependence is allowed because the Ricci tensor is nonzero; the divergence of $d{k}^{♭}$ is sourced by $R_{ab}{k}^b$. At the horizon $M_K(r_{+})=(r_{+}-r_{-})/2=\kappa A_H/(4\pi )$.

For $D>2$, tracing and substituting back gives

For the conserved scalar stress tensor above,

For $h_{ab}=\delta g_{ab}$, variation of the inverse metric and metric volume form givesThe Levi-Civita connection varies by

For the Levi-Civita connection, the difference of two connections is a tensor. Varying the coordinate expression for the Ricci tensor then gives the displayed covariant identity. It is the starting point for the metric variation of scalar curvature.

For $h_{ab}=\delta g_{ab}$, the Ricci scalar varies asThe last two terms form a covariant divergence and hence contribute only a boundary term to a compactly supported variation of the Einstein-Hilbert action.

Modified gravity changes the Einstein-Hilbert action or its field equations in order to produce gravitational dynamics different from general relativity.

A relativistic gravitational theory constructed by Jacob Bekenstein using tensor, vector and scalar fields, together with a specified physical metric for matter. It illustrates how the low-acceleration phenomenology of MOND can be embedded in a theory with calculable light deflection. Matching rotation curves is not sufficient to establish its lensing or cosmological predictions.^[ref]

A low-acceleration modification associated with Mordehai Milgrom. For an isolated spherical system, $g\mu (g/a_0)=g_N$, with $\mu (x)\to 1$ at high $x$ and $\mu (x)\to x$ at low $x$. An isolated point-like baryonic distribution then gives $v_c^4=G{M}_b{a}_0$ and a flat asymptotic galaxy rotation curve. The algebraic spherical relation is not a complete relativistic field theory and should not be assumed to hold vectorially for arbitrary mass distributions.^[ref]

A scalar-tensor theory uses a metric tensor and an additional scalar field to mediate gravity. A scalar multiplier of the Ricci scalar makes the curvature coupling depend on that field. The Brans-Dicke theory is a standard example; the choice of scalar potential and kinetic coupling distinguishes different members of the class.

With the curvature sign convention in which $\delta R_{bc}={\nabla }_c\delta {\Gamma }^a{}_{ba}-{\nabla }_a\delta {\Gamma }^a{}_{bc}$, the inverse-metric variation of $\int \sqrt{-g}\Phi R$ is $\int \sqrt{-g}{E}_{ab}\delta g^{ab}$ plus a boundary term, for a scalar multiplier held fixed in that variation. The Palatini identity expresses the curvature variation as divergences of $\delta \Gamma$. Two integrations by parts move the derivatives onto $\Phi$, yielding the displayed terms. For constant $\Phi$ they vanish. The opposite curvature convention instead has $E_{ab}=\Phi G_{ab}+g_{ab}\square \Phi -{\nabla }_a{\nabla }_b\Phi$.

The Brans-Dicke theory adds a dynamical scalar field $\Phi$ to a metric tensor theory of gravity, with constant dimensionless coupling $\omega$. In a $(+---)$ signature and the reversed-curvature convention used here, the displayed Lagrangian is supplemented by matter and integrated against the metric tensor volume density with prefactor $1/(16\pi G)$. Its scalar multiplier of the Ricci scalar lets the curvature coupling vary in spacetime. Both the metric tensor and scalar are varied; the scalar equation of Brans-Dicke theory follows by eliminating curvature between the scalar equation and the trace of the metric tensor equation. The original construction is described in Brans and Dicke's 1961 article.

Assume four spacetime dimensions, $\Phi \ne 0$, constant $\omega$, no scalar potential and matter independent of $\Phi$. In the stated action convention, scalar variation gives $\Phi R+\omega {\Phi }^{-1}(\nabla \Phi {)}^2-2\omega \square \Phi =0$. The trace of the metric tensor equation gives $\Phi R+\omega {\Phi }^{-1}(\nabla \Phi {)}^2+3\square \Phi =8\pi GT$. Their subtraction proves the displayed wave equation with $T=g^{ab}{T}_{ab}$. The degenerate coupling of Brans-Dicke theory needs separate treatment before dividing by its coefficient.

At $\omega =-3/2$, the combined scalar equation of Brans-Dicke theory becomes the matter consistency condition $T=0$. It does not determine $\square \Phi$ by division, since the wave coefficient has vanished. The original metric tensor and scalar Euler-Lagrange equations must be retained. Introducing scalar-dependent matter or a scalar potential changes the consistency condition.

An f(R) theory replaces the Ricci scalar in the gravitational action by a smooth function $f(R)$. Its metric field equation is

In the mostly-minus convention with vacuum gravitational action proportional to $\int \sqrt{-g}f(R)$ and $f^{\prime }<0$, the displayed conformal transformation turns its vacuum equation into ${\tilde{G}}_{\mu \nu }=T_{\mu \nu }(\varphi )$, with potential $V=(R{f}^{\prime }-f)/(2f^{\prime 2})$ and the stress-energy tensor of a canonical scalar field. The conformal Ricci formula cancels the second derivatives of $f^{\prime }$ against the original field equation. Its remaining derivative tensor is ${\partial }_{\mu }\varphi {\partial }_{\nu }\varphi -{\tilde{g}}_{\mu \nu }(\tilde{\nabla }\varphi {)}^2/2$. Expressing $V$ as a function of $\varphi$ requires a locally invertible $R\mapsto f^{\prime }(R)$. When $f^{\prime \prime }=0$, this scalar-tensor parametrization degenerates and introduces no new propagating scalar degree of freedom.

Every four-dimensional Einstein metric with $R_{ab}=\Lambda g_{ab}$ has constant Ricci scalar $R=4\Lambda$. The vacuum metric f(R) gravity tensor reduces to $(\Lambda f^{\prime }(4\Lambda )-f(4\Lambda )/2)g_{ab}$, giving the displayed necessary and sufficient condition for a fixed cosmological constant. Both function and derivative may vanish, so division by $f^{\prime }$ is unnecessary. Requiring this for all real $\Lambda$ and a smooth $f$ instead yields $f(R)=C{R}^2$.

For a metric action $S_g=A\int \sqrt{-g}f(R)d^{4}x$ and the usual stress-energy tensor convention, covariant metric variation gives $A{E}_{ab}=T_{ab}/2$, where $E_{ab}=f^{\prime }{R}_{ab}-f{g}_{ab}/2+(g_{ab}\square -{\nabla }_a{\nabla }_b)f^{\prime }$. With $A=1/(16\pi G)$ this becomes $E_{ab}=8\pi G{T}_{ab}$; with $A=1$ it becomes $E_{ab}=T_{ab}/2$. The chosen normalization does not alter the vacuum equation.

If $f(0)=0$, $f^{\prime }(0)=1$, and $f^{\prime \prime }(0)=0$, then $f(R)=R+O(R^3)$ near zero. The field equations linearized about Minkowski spacetime are therefore the Linearized Einstein equations; deviations first appear beyond linear order.