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An Alfvén wave is a magnetohydrodynamic wave in which magnetic tension restores a sideways disturbance of a conducting fluid. In the small-amplitude, uniform-background ideal magnetohydrodynamics model, its shear polarization of waves has displacement perpendicular to both the background magnetic field and the wavevector. It is an incompressible flow disturbance: the mass density and gas pressure have no first-order fluctuation. Its dispersion relation is ${\omega }^2=(\mathbf{k}\cdot {\mathbf{v}}_A{)}^2$, where ${\mathbf{v}}_A$ is the background Alfvén velocity.

The mechanism resembles a plucked taut string: magnetic flux freezing makes sideways fluid flow bend magnetic field lines, and their magnetic tension accelerates neighboring fluid. The fluid supplies inertia and the bent magnetic field supplies the restoring stress. This permits energy transport without a first-order compression, unlike an acoustic wave. Hannes Alfvén's 1942 paper, Existence of Electromagnetic-Hydrodynamic Waves, considered precisely a uniform axial magnetic field, infinite electrical conductivity and sideways velocity depending on axial position and time; it proposed a solar application. This was a theoretical prediction, followed by the distinct Lundquist liquid-metal Alfvén wave experiment.^[ref]

For oblique propagation, the shear Alfvén wave has velocity normal to the plane containing the wavevector and background magnetic field. The fast magnetosonic wave and slow magnetosonic wave instead have velocity in that plane and generally involve compression, with gas pressure and magnetic pressure contributing to their restoring forces. For exactly parallel propagation the plane is not unique: either transverse polarization of waves is allowed, and some modal speeds coincide. For $k_{\parallel }=0$ the shear branch has $\omega =0$, while the fast magnetosonic wave can still propagate perpendicular to the magnetic field. One should identify the polarization of waves as well as the phase velocity. The statement that the shear mode is incompressible concerns this linear mode; a finite linearly polarized disturbance can drive a quadratic compressive response, as in the magnetic-pressure obstruction to a linearly polarized Alfvén wave.

For density proportional to ${\mathrm{sech}}^2(z/H)$, the magnetic vertical equation $F^{\prime \prime }+k^2{\mathrm{sech}}^2(z/H)F=0$ becomes the Legendre differential equation under $\xi =\tanh (z/H)$. Bounded solutions at both surfaces are Legendre polynomials, with $k_n=\sqrt{n(n+1)}/H$. The $n=0$ constant function has no magnetically coupled finite wavenumber. The smallest MRI-relevant eigenvalue is $k_1^2=2/H^2$, which makes sufficiently strong magnetic tension stabilize all allowed modes.

For an imposed field $B_0$ in a layer of depth $d$, the Chandrasekhar number compares magnetic tension with viscous and magnetic-diffusive effects. Here $\eta$ is magnetic diffusivity and $\nu$ is kinematic viscosity. In thermal-diffusion units the linear magnetic-force coefficient is $Q\zeta$, where $\zeta =\eta /\kappa$ and $\kappa$ is thermal diffusivity.

For an axisymmetric vector field independent of the axial coordinate and regular on the axis, Gauss's law for magnetism gives $B_R=0$. The magnetostatic Ampère-Maxwell equation then gives $j_R=0$, $j_{\varphi }=-c{B}_z^{\prime }/(4\pi )$, and $j_z=c(R{B}_{\varphi }{)}^{\prime }/(4\pi R)$ in Gaussian units. Radial magnetostatic equilibrium isFor enclosed axial electric current $I(R)$, the magnetostatic Ampère-Maxwell equation gives $B_{\varphi }=2I/(cR)$, henceThe first term contains pressure and axial magnetic pressure; the second combines toroidal magnetic pressure with the hoop force from magnetic tension.

If the horizontal magnetic field perturbations vanish at $z=\pm H$, their allowed vertical wavenumbers are $k_m=m\pi /(2H)$, $m=1,2,\dots$. The lowest wavenumber is unstable exactly whenIf that magnetic mode is stable, all higher magnetic modes are stable as well. A weak field lowers the minimum unstable wavelength, allowing unstable modes to fit inside the slab; sufficiently strong magnetic tension stabilizes every allowed wavelength.

Parallel particle pressure can overcome magnetic tension. In the long-wavelength gyrotropic plasma limit, the Alfvén wave has ${\omega }^2=k_{\parallel }^2[B^2/(4\pi )+p_{\perp }-p_{\parallel }]/\rho$, so the condition in the title makes it unstable. The detailed kinetic threshold at shorter scales requires additional physics.

For a regular cylindrical flux tube with $\mathbf{B}=(0,B_{\varphi }(s),B_z(s))$, vanishing field beyond radius $s_0$, and exterior pressure $p_e$, define $⟨h⟩=2s_0^{-2}{\int }_0^{s_0}sh(s)ds$ and $B_p^2=2{\mu }_0{p}_e$. Integrating cylindrical magnetostatic pressure balance against $s^2$ gives the displayed identity. The toroidal magnetic pressure and hoop magnetic tension cancel in this cross-sectional axial-field average. Nonnegative gas pressure gives $⟨B_z^2⟩\le B_p^2$, with strict inequality precisely when $⟨p⟩>0$.

For ideal magnetohydrodynamics at constant mass density $\rho$, a shearing sheet with velocity $-q\Omega x{\mathbf{e}}_y+{\mathbf{v}}_h(z,t)$ and magnetic field ${\mathbf{B}}_h(z,t)+B_z{\mathbf{e}}_z$ obeysHorizontal invariance and vanishing vertical velocity eliminate nonlinear advection. These equations retain Coriolis acceleration, orbital shear and magnetic tension. The vertical pressure adjusts to balance gravity and magnetic pressure.

The inviscid magnetohydrodynamic momentum equation balances inertia, pressure, gravitational acceleration and Lorentz force density. The magnetic force separates into magnetic tension and magnetic pressure. It is coupled to the continuity equation and the ideal magnetohydrodynamic induction equation.

Ideal magnetohydrodynamics describes a conducting fluid whose electromagnetic evolution neglects electrical resistivity. Its defining electric-field relation isso the electric field vanishes in the local nonrelativistic fluid rest frame. Together with Faraday's law this gives the ideal magnetohydrodynamic induction equationThe Lorentz force density couples the field back to fluid momentum. ^[ref]

For sufficiently smooth fields, the induction equation implies magnetic flux freezing: flux through a material surface moving with the fluid is conserved. Stretching the fluid can therefore amplify the magnetic field while preserving its connectivity. Magnetic tension supports Alfvén waves, providing a direct dynamical consequence of the coupling.

A large magnetic Reynolds number $\mathrm{Rm}=UL/\eta$ motivates neglecting diffusion on the chosen scales. Thin current sheets can still make nonideal terms important locally. The ideal induction condition alone does not set fluid viscosity; mechanical dissipation and magnetic diffusion are different approximations.

For a vertical magnetic field in a homogeneous shearing sheet, a horizontal normal mode with growth rate $s$ and vertical Alfvén frequency ${\omega }_a=k{v}_{Az}$ satisfiesThe two roots for $s^2$ are real. For $q>0$, a growing magnetic mode exists precisely when $0<{\omega }_a^2<2q{\Omega }^2$. Magnetic tension is strong enough to couple radially displaced elements, yet weak enough to allow their separation to increase. Ogilvie's lecture on magnetorotational instability derives this relation and its finite-thickness boundary conditions.

For a static ideal magnetohydrodynamics equilibrium in fixed gravity, let $\nabla \cdot \xi =0$ and $\Pi =p+B^2/(2{\mu }_0)$. Frozen flux gives $b=(B\cdot \nabla )\xi -(\xi \cdot \nabla )B$ and continuity gives ${\rho }^{\prime }=-\xi \cdot \nabla \rho$. Multiplying the linear momentum equation by the conjugate displacement and integrating by parts gives the displayed identity when surface terms vanish. The two magnetic cross terms cancel; the remaining magnetic equilibrium derivative combines with the mass density-gradient force to give the two Hessian matrices. Real symmetric Hessian matrices and the nonnegative magnetic tension term make ${\sigma }^2$ real.

An instability in which neighboring flux tubes exchange positions across a pressure gradient or other stratification, reducing the appropriate potential energy. Unfavorable magnetic field-line curvature can drive the exchange; parallel variation bends the magnetic field and introduces stabilizing magnetic tension. In a steep-gradient low-plasma beta local Z-pinch, ${\omega }^2=k_{\parallel }^2{v}_A^2-2p_0/({\rho }_{0}R{L}_p)$.

For a horizontal field $B(z)e_x$ in constant downward gravity, equilibrium obeys $(p+B^2/(2{\mu }_0){)}_z=-\rho g$. The displacement energy reduces to the displayed quadratic form. Perturbations independent of the field direction do not bend magnetic field lines and therefore have no magnetic tension penalty: an increasing mass density with height permits instability. A nonincreasing mass density gives nonnegative energy for all admitted incompressible perturbations. Along-field variation adds magnetic tension proportional to wavenumber squared, stabilizing sufficiently short waves when buoyancy is unfavorable.

In Gaussian units, the equation in the title uses the gyrotropic pressure tensor $\mathbf{P}=p_{\perp }\mathbf{I}+(p_{\parallel }-p_{\perp })\mathbf{bb}$. This allows pressure anisotropy. Its magnetic force contains both magnetic pressure and magnetic tension.

Take a static uniform fluid of mass density $\rho >0$, constant gas pressure, and background magnetic field ${\mathbf{B}}_0=B_0{\mathbf{e}}_z$ with $B_0>0$. Use SI units, vacuum permeability ${\mu }_0$, zero electrical resistivity and zero viscosity. Write $\mathbf{B}={\mathbf{B}}_0+{\mathbf{b}}_{\perp }(z,t)$ and $\mathbf{u}={\mathbf{u}}_{\perp }(z,t)$, with both disturbances perpendicular to ${\mathbf{e}}_z$. Retain only linear order in their amplitudes. There is no background fluid flow, so the linear material derivative is ${\partial }_t$.

The continuity equation has $\nabla \cdot {\mathbf{u}}_{\perp }=0$, hence ${\partial }_t\delta \rho =0$; choosing no initial mass density fluctuation gives $\delta \rho =0$. For this shear mode the gas pressure fluctuation is also zero. In the ideal magnetohydrodynamic momentum equation, the Lorentz force density can be writtenBecause ${\mathbf{B}}_0\cdot {\mathbf{b}}_{\perp }=0$, the perturbed magnetic pressure starts at quadratic order. The surviving transverse magnetic tension gives the first equation below. Expanding the ideal magnetohydrodynamic induction equation gives the second:Differentiate the first in time and substitute the second. Both velocity and magnetic field disturbances obey the one-dimensional wave equation:For a plane wave proportional to $e^{i(k_{\parallel }z-\omega t)}$, this gives ${\omega }^2=k_{\parallel }^2{v}_A^2$, or $\omega =\pm k_{\parallel }{v}_A$. The magnetic and velocity amplitudes satisfy ${\mathbf{b}}_{\perp }=-(B_0{k}_{\parallel }/\omega ){\mathbf{u}}_{\perp }$: they have opposite signs for propagation along $+{\mathbf{e}}_z$ and equal signs for propagation along $-{\mathbf{e}}_z$. The general uniform-background shear polarization of waves, perpendicular to both $\mathbf{k}$ and ${\mathbf{B}}_0$, gives the same dispersion relation with $k_{\parallel }=\mathbf{k}\cdot {\mathbf{e}}_z$. Its group velocity is $\pm v_A{\mathbf{e}}_z$, whereas its phase velocity normal to an oblique wavefront has magnitude $v_A|k_{\parallel }|/|\mathbf{k}|$.

The magnetic tension stress transports axial angular momentum along a poloidal magnetic field. In purely azimuthal ideal flow the poloidal energy flux is ${\mathbf{F}}_{E,p}=\Omega {\mathbf{F}}_{J,p}$. This proportionality is valid even at vanishing flux, where an ordinary ratio is undefined. The coupled fluxes explain how a torsional Alfvén wave redistributes rotation.

In the steady state of the horizontally invariant magnetized shearing-sheet equations, let $B_x(\pm H)=\pm B_{+}$ and $B_y(\pm H)=0$. For $q>0$ and $B_z\ne 0$, the symmetric equilibrium hasThis follows by combining azimuthal induction with radial magnetic tension balance to obtain $B_x^{\prime \prime }+K^2{B}_x=0$. Nonzero $B_{+}$ requires $\sin (KH)\ne 0$; even homogeneous additions at $\cos (KH)=0$ are excluded by imposing midplane symmetry.

Magnetic buoyancy is the tendency of magnetized fluid to rise when magnetic pressure support reduces its density relative to its surroundings. For a thin flux concentration in lateral balance, $p_{\mathrm{in}}+B^2/(2{\mu }_0)=p_{\mathrm{out}}$. At equal temperature and composition an ideal-gas equation of state then gives ${\rho }_{\mathrm{in}}<{\rho }_{\mathrm{out}}$, producing an upward buoyant force. Thermal exchange, magnetic tension and stable stratification modify this simple argument. In a solar dynamo, buoyant toroidal flux can emerge as tilted bipolar active regions.

At a fixed horizontal wavenumber magnitude, the steady neutral curve in the horizontal-field magnetoconvection dispersion relation is minimized by $m=0$. The disturbance is then constant along the imposed magnetic field; it induces no field bending and incurs no magnetic tension penalty. Minimizing $(k^2+{\pi }^2{)}^3/k^2$ gives the displayed stationary threshold for every $Q\ge 0$. These convection rolls have axes parallel to the imposed field. This assertion concerns steady onset.

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