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Every nontrivial normal subgroup of a faithful primitive group of prime degree is transitive and contains a Sylow $p$-subgroup $P$. Its normalizer in $A_p$ has order $pq$. For a proper normal subgroup $N$, the Frattini argument gives $G=N{N}_G(P)$; unless $G=C_p$, its $P$-normalizer is the full order-$pq$ normalizer, while $N_N(P)=P$. The Burnside transfer theorem gives a characteristic normal $p$-complement in $N$. This complement is normal in $G$ and cannot be transitive because its order is prime to $p$, so it is trivial. Thus $N=P$ and $|G|=pq$.

If a primitive subgroup of $S_n$ contains a transposition, make a graph whose edges are the supports of its conjugate transpositions. Connected components form blocks for the group. An edge exists, so primitivity forces the graph to be connected. Its edge transpositions generate all of $S_n$, proving that the original group is $S_n$.

A monic polynomial of degree $m$ over ${\mathbb{F}}_q$ that is an irreducible polynomial is primitive in the finite-field sense when one of its roots generates the multiplicative group of a finite field ${\mathbb{F}}_{q^m}^{\times }$. All its roots are Frobenius conjugates and then have the same order $q^m-1$. This notion differs from a primitive polynomial over an integral domain, which concerns the common divisor of its coefficients. Primitive finite-field polynomials provide explicit field representations and primitive cyclic Reed-Solomon codes or BCH codes.

In a left Noetherian ring, Noetherian induction shows that every proper two-sided ideal contains a finite product of prime ideals of a noncommutative ring that contain it. A maximal counterexample would be nonprime and contain a product of two strictly larger ideals; their prime products give the contradiction. Every prime over the original ideal contains a factor, so the inclusion-minimal factors give all its minimal primes over an ideal. Replacing each factor by a minimal prime beneath it gives a product of minimal primes inside the original ideal, with repetitions allowed. Applying this to zero makes a power of the prime radical zero.

The quadrupolar kernel of the pressure Poisson equation for incompressible flow allows mixed pressure-velocity correlations with an $r^{-3}$ tail. Its derivative in the evolution of a longitudinal triple correlation allows an $r^{-4}$ tail, potentially changing the Loitsyansky integral. The existence of a nonlocal kernel does not fix the tail coefficient or prevent cancellations. An isotropic mean pressure multipole can vanish while a mixed higher-order correlation remains nonzero.

Linearizing area conservation and the axial momentum equation of a collapsible tube flow gives waves travelling relative to the fluid at speeds $\pm c$, where the displayed relation uses the area derivative at fixed external pressure. For $p=P_0+\rho c_0^2(A/A_0{)}^2/2$, it gives $c=c_{0}A/A_0$.

The tensor represents maps $P\times Q\to R$ preserving finite meets and directed joins in each variable separately. Its pure generators $p\#q$ satisfy the corresponding relations in each variable. The unit is the free preframe on one generator, the bottom of the frame of truth values. For frames, this tensor is their coproduct, with $p\#q=i(p)\vee j(q)$; it must not be confused with the rectangle $i(p)\wedge j(q)$.

Start with one self-loop, and at step $t$ add one vertex and one edge. An old vertex $i$ is chosen with probability $d_i(t-1)/(2t-1)$, and the new vertex is chosen with probability $1/(2t-1)$, producing a self-loop. Self-loops contribute two to the degree of a vertex. There are $n$ edges and total vertex degree $2n$ at time $n$. This exact normalization is distinct from treating the total vertex degree as the number of edges.

The strict preference associated with a weak preference relation retains comparisons that do not hold in the reverse direction.

For a preorder, the indifference relation is an equivalence relation. Passing to its equivalence classes removes ties and produces a partial order.

This is the Fell topology restricted to closed graphs of complete, transitive, continuous preference relations. Both the upper limit condition and approximation of every limiting weak comparison are needed. A large limiting indifference class can make the second requirement stronger than convergence of numerical utility differences.

A pre-main-sequence star with a developing radiative core can contract along a relatively horizontal path toward higher effective temperature in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. This differs from the nearly vertical fully convective Hayashi track.

For a steady incompressible viscous boundary layer over a flat plate with constant outer speed $U$, the stream function $\psi =\sqrt{\nu Ux}f(y\sqrt{U/(\nu x)})$ reduces the Prandtl boundary-layer equation to the displayed ordinary differential equation. The wall and outer conditions are $f(0)=f^{\prime }(0)=0$ and $f^{\prime }(\infty )=1$. The wall shear is $\rho U\sqrt{\nu U/x}{f}^{\prime \prime }(0)$, so its integral on one plate face of length $L$ is $2\rho U^{2}L{f}^{\prime \prime }(0)/\sqrt{UL/\nu }$. Both equally exposed faces contribute twice this value.

For a real linearly polarized monochromatic vacuum plane wave, the local Poynting vector is proportional to ${\cos }^2(\mathbf{k}\cdot \mathbf{r}-\omega t)\hat{\mathbf{k}}$. Its flux through a closed surface generally oscillates at $2\omega$, with zero cycle average, although particular volume geometries can cancel it identically. For a circularly polarized plane wave of constant amplitude the Poynting vector is spatially and temporally constant, so the net flux through every closed surface is exactly zero. A nonzero constant local energy flux must not be confused with the net closed-surface flux.

For grains of fixed diameter $D$ released instantaneously at $r_0$, the drift law $\dot{r}=-\gamma /(rD)$ integrates to the displayed size-radius map. The time to radius $r<r_0$ is $t_r(D)=D(r_0^2-r^2)/(2\gamma )$. Grains therefore arrive in increasing diameter order. This model of Poynting–Robertson drag assumes nearly circular Kepler orbits, fixed positive $\gamma$, and no grain loss or diameter changes before arrival. At a positive time, the map is monotone in $D$ and allows the initial power-law size distribution to be transformed into a spatial distribution or an arrival-time distribution.

There is no surjection from a set $X$ onto its power set $\mathcal{P}(X)$. Consequently $\mathcal{P}(X)$ has strictly greater cardinality than $X$.

For any candidate function $f:X\to \mathcal{P}(X)$, form $D=\{x\in X:x\notin f(x)\}$. This is a subset of $X$ by set comprehension. If $f(d)=D$, then $d\in D$ holds exactly when $d\notin D$, a contradiction. Thus $D$ is missing from the image of $f$. On the other hand, $x\mapsto \{x\}$ is an injection from $X$ into its power set, establishing the strict comparison of cardinalities. For $X=\mathbb{N}$, the omitted selection is the subset version of Cantor's diagonal argument.

For the degree-$N$ partial sum $P_N(z)=1+z+\cdots +z^N$ of the geometric series, the finite identity $(1-z)P_N(z)=1-z^{N+1}$ givesFor any fixed $0<r<1$, the triangle inequality then gives the uniform error boundEquality is attained at the positive real point $z=r$, so this is the exact worst-case error on that closed disk. It also proves uniform convergence on each such disk, not just pointwise convergence.

Given a positive tolerance $\epsilon$, choosing $N$ with $r^{N+1}/(1-r)\le \epsilon$ turns a convergence statement into a finite stopping rule. For $\epsilon =10^{-3}$, degree ten suffices throughout $|z|\le 1/2$. Nearer the boundary, $r=0.9$ requires degree $87$ and $r=0.99$ requires degree $1145$. The required degree depends on both the tolerance and the region, not just on the name of the function.

For a monomorphism $Y\hookrightarrow X$ in a Cartesian category, intersect the universal membership relation on $X\times PX$ with $Y\times PX$. The resulting subobject is classified by $r:PX\to PX$, and $r^2=r$. The equalizer of $r$ and the identity represents precisely families of subobjects of $X$ contained in $Y$, hence is a power object for $Y$. This construction only requires the power object of $X$ and finite limits.

If a Cartesian category has power objects, its slice categories do too. In $\mathcal{E}/A$, the constant family $A\times X\to A$ has power object $A\times PX\to A$, since its product with a family $Y\to A$ is $X\times Y$. An arbitrary family $p:X\to A$ is a subobject of the constant family through its graph $(p,1_X)$, so the power object of a subobject construction applies in the slice.

When two independent iterates span an invariant two-dimensional subspace, their recurrence gives the characteristic polynomial ${\lambda }^2-s\lambda +p$. For distinct roots ${\lambda }_1,{\lambda }_2$, corresponding eigenvectors are $y_{k+1}-{\lambda }_2{y}_k$ and $y_{k+1}-{\lambda }_1{y}_k$. For a merely approximately dominant subspace, the same computation gives approximate eigenpairs. A single orbit cannot separate a repeated eigenvalue's entire eigenspace when its projection is only one direction.