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The Rayleigh quotient measures the quadratic form of a self-adjoint operator per unit squared norm. For a nonzero vector $x$ and a finite-dimensional Hermitian matrix $A$,For a real symmetric matrix, replace the conjugate transpose $x^{\ast }$ by $x^T$. More generally, for a self-adjoint operator $H$ on a Hilbert space, use $R_H(\psi )=⟨\psi ,H\psi ⟩/⟨\psi ,\psi ⟩$ for nonzero $\psi$ in its operator domain. On an eigenvector it returns the exact eigenvalue. Multiplying the vector by any nonzero scalar leaves the quotient unchanged, so it measures a direction rather than a chosen length.

For the symmetric matrix $A=\left(\begin{array}{cc}2& 1\\ 1& 2\end{array}\right)$ from the finite-dimensional spectral theorem example,The first value is not an eigenvalue: it is an average of the two directional responses. To see every direction, write the unit vector $q(\theta )=\cos \theta e_{+}+\sin \theta e_{-}$ in the orthonormal eigenbasis. ThenThe largest value is $3$ along $e_{+}$; the smallest is $1$ along $e_{-}$. A direction halfway between them has quotient $2$. In the left panel, the color on the unit circle represents the quotient; in the right panel, the same values are plotted against the angle measured from $e_{+}$.

The Hermitian Rayleigh quotient range explains why this is useful: evaluating one trial vector gives an upper bound on the smallest eigenvalue and a lower bound on the largest one, without solving a characteristic polynomial. At an extreme eigenvector, a small angular error changes the quotient only quadratically. Near $e_{+}$ in this example, $3-R_A(q(\theta ))=2{\sin }^2\theta =2{\theta }^2+O({\theta }^4)$. This is the geometric reason for quadratic Rayleigh-quotient improvement for the power method and motivates the Rayleigh-Ritz method.

There is a concrete historical link with normal modes. In The Theory of Sound (1877), Volume I, Sections 88–89, Lord Rayleigh studies the period of a constrained trial vibration. He shows that the period has a stationary point at a normal mode and that a trial type bounds the longest natural period. These energy ratios are a mechanical setting for the modern Rayleigh quotient and generalized Rayleigh quotient; the book describes the result through vibration periods, rather than today's matrix notation.^[ref]

The unilateral shifts on sequences move every component one place left or right. Their spectra illustrate behavior absent in finite dimensions.

A matrix is normal when $A{A}^{†}=A^{†}A$.

A complex matrix is unitary when $U^{†}U=U{U}^{†}=I$. Its columns form an orthonormal basis, and it preserves inner products and norms.

A scalar $\lambda$ is an eigenvalue of a linear operator $A:V\to V$ whenfor some nonzero vector $v$, called an eigenvector. The scalar must belong to the field over which $V$ is a vector space. Geometrically, a real eigenvalue tells us what $A$ does along a special line: every vector on that line is multiplied by the same number. The eigenvector gives the line and the eigenvalue gives its scaling.

For a real eigenvalue, $\lambda >0$ preserves the orientation along the line, $\lambda <0$ reverses it, and $\lambda =0$ collapses the line to zero. The length is multiplied by the modulus $|\lambda |$, so $|\lambda |>1$ stretches and $0<|\lambda |<1$ contracts. For example, the diagonal matrix $\mathrm{diag}(2,-1/2,0)$ doubles one coordinate direction, reverses and halves another, and annihilates the third. Its eigenvalues are $2,-1/2,0$; the last direction lies in its kernel.

For a finite square matrix, the eigenvalues are the roots of a polynomial $p_A$, its characteristic polynomial:Here $I$ is the identity matrix. The reason is that $Av=\lambda v$ means $(A-\lambda I)v=0$ with $v\ne 0$: the shifted matrix must have a nontrivial kernel, equivalently a zero determinant. The worked symmetric matrix example in eigenvector shows both stages: find the eigenvalues, then find their eigenspaces.

Eigenvalues are especially useful for repeated application of a linear map. If $Av=\lambda v$, thenOne multiplication proves the next step, so a matrix power becomes an ordinary power on each eigenvector. This explains growth, decay, and alternating signs along these directions. Gilbert Strang develops this connection, and its extension to the matrix exponential, in his lecture "Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors" (MIT 18.065, 2018).^[ref]

A documented historical connection is C. G. J. Jacobi's "Über ein leichtes Verfahren die in der Theorie der Säcularstörungen vorkommenden Gleichungen numerisch aufzulösen" (1846, Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik 30, pp. 51–94). Its opening discusses symmetric matrices arising from small oscillations, with a common unknown subtracted from every diagonal entry. In modern notation this is $(A-\lambda I)v=0$; Jacobi seeks the parameter and the ratios of the components of $v$. This is evidence of an early physical and computational setting for the eigenvalue problem, without assigning its discovery to a single person.^[ref][ref]

A linear map $T:V\to V$ is nilpotent if $T^k=0$ for some positive integer $k$.

On all real-valued functions on $\mathbb{R}$, define $D_{r}f(x)=f(x+r)-f(x)$. The operators commute, and every real number except $-1$ is an eigenvalue. For eigenvalue $\lambda \ne -1$, values may be chosen independently on the cosets of $r\mathbb{Z}$ and extended by $f(x+r)=(1+\lambda )f(x)$, so every eigenspace is infinite-dimensional.

Let $C=[B,A]$ and suppose $AC=CA$. Then $C$ is nilpotent. For the derivation $D(X)=[B,X]$, one has $D(p(A))=p^{\prime }(A)C$. If $f(A)=0$, induction givesIndeed, if $u{C}^m=C^{m}u=0$, differentiating $u{C}^m=0$ and multiplying on the left by $C^m$ gives $C^{m}D(u)C^m=0$; for $u=f^{(k)}(A)$ this replaces $m$ by $2m+1$. Taking $k=\mathrm{deg}f$ makes $f^{(k)}$ a nonzero constant and proves nilpotence.

For a square matrix over a field, the minimal polynomial $m_A$ is the unique monic polynomial of least degree satisfying $m_A(A)=0$. The Cayley-Hamilton theorem guarantees at least one such polynomial: the characteristic polynomial. The minimal polynomial divides every polynomial that annihilates $A$, so reducing matrix powers modulo $m_A$ can need fewer coefficients than reducing modulo the characteristic polynomial.

For example, $2I_2$ has minimal polynomial $t-2$, whereas the Jordan block $\left(\begin{array}{cc}2& 1\\ 0& 2\end{array}\right)$ has minimal polynomial $(t-2{)}^2$. Both have the same characteristic polynomial. Their different matrix powers are illustrated in repeated eigenvalues in the Cayley-Hamilton theorem.

For a square matrix $A$, its exponential is the convergent power seriesIt is the fundamental matrix for $y^{\prime }=Ay$ and satisfies $e^{(s+t)A}=e^{sA}{e}^{tA}$.

Eigenvalue interlacing bounds the ordered eigenvalues of a compressed or rank-modified operator between those of the original operator.

The characteristic polynomial isIts roots are precisely the eigenvalues of $A$.

Iterate $q^{(k+1)}=A{q}^{(k)}/\Vert A{q}^{(k)}\Vert$. For a self-adjoint operator with a unique dominant eigenvalue separated in modulus from the others, a starting vector that is nonorthogonal to its dominant eigenvector gives convergence of the eigendirection at the spectral-ratio rate. For a general diagonalizable matrix, the condition is a nonzero coefficient in the dominant component of its eigenbasis, detected by the corresponding left eigenvector; an ordinary dot product with the right eigenvector does not generally detect that coefficient.

The power method is power iteration; its convergence depends on the dominant spectral component of the starting vector.

For example, $B=\left(\begin{array}{cc}2& 1\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right)$ has dominant right eigenvector $(1,0{)}^T$ and a dominant left eigenvector $(1,1{)}^T$. The starting vector $q^{(0)}=(-1,1{)}^T/\sqrt{2}$ has nonzero dot product with the right eigenvector, but $B{q}^{(0)}=q^{(0)}$: it stays forever in the eigenspace for the smaller eigenvalue $1$. Its coefficient along the dominant direction is zero, as the left eigenvector detects. An orthonormal eigenbasis makes the two tests agree in the self-adjoint case.

The real case of the finite-dimensional spectral theorem says that a self-adjoint operator on a finite-dimensional real inner product space has a real orthonormal eigenbasis. In orthonormal coordinates this is the spectral theorem for real symmetric matrices, $A=Q\Lambda Q^T$. The worked ellipse under finite-dimensional spectral theorem shows why both orthogonal diagonalization and orthogonality matter: the new coordinates separate the quadratic form into squares without distorting lengths or angles.

A real normal matrix need not have real eigenvalues. For example, the quarter-turn $\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& -1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right)$ is an orthogonal matrix, but its characteristic polynomial is $z^2+1$ and its eigenvalues are $i,-i$. Over the complex numbers it has an orthonormal eigenbasis; over the real numbers it has no eigenvector. Self-adjointness supplies the reality conclusion in the real spectral theorem.

A densely defined operator $T$ on a Hilbert space is self-adjoint when it equals its adjoint operator, including equality of their operator domains:For a bounded linear operator defined on the whole Hilbert space, this is equivalent tofor all vectors $v,w$. For an unbounded self-adjoint operator, the domain condition is essential: the inner-product identity on $D(T)$ alone gives only a symmetric operator.

If $V$ is a subspace of a space with an inner product and $P_V$ is its orthogonal projection, the compression of an operator $A$ to $V$ isIf the columns of $Z$ are an orthonormal basis of $V$, its matrix in that basis is $Z^{\ast }AZ$.

For $d^{T}x>0$, setThen $d^{T}y=1$, and $Ax=b$ becomes $Ay=bt$, turning a linear-fractional program into a linear program with objective $c^{T}y$.

This quantitative refinement belongs to the theory of Baker's theorem; its dependence on the scaled coefficient bound is more specific than that broad theorem.

Choose logarithms of nonzero algebraic numbers ${\alpha }_1,\dots ,{\alpha }_n$, putand choose $A_i\ge 10$ large enough to bound the naive polynomial height of the minimal polynomial of ${\alpha }_i$ and $\exp (|\log {\alpha }_i|)$. After relabelling the terms if useful, setThere is an effectively computable constant $C$, depending only on $n$ and the degree of the number field generated by the ${\alpha }_i$, such that

The division by $\log A_n$ is the useful refinement over the general lower bound for a linear form in logarithms when one algebraic number has a large height correlated with a coefficient.

Choose logarithms of nonzero algebraic numbers ${\alpha }_1,\dots ,{\alpha }_n$ and algebraic numbers ${\beta }_0,\dots ,{\beta }_n$, and putLet $A_j$ bound $10$, the naive polynomial height of the minimal polynomial of ${\alpha }_j$, and $\exp (|\log {\alpha }_j|)$. Let $B$ bound all the corresponding heights of the ${\beta }_j$ and all $\log A_j$. There is an effective constant $C$, depending only on $n$ and the degree of the number field generated by the data, such that