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For density of states $AV{ϵ}^a$, $a>-1$, the grand canonical ensemble has $\log \mathcal{Z}=V{T}^{a+1}f(\mu /T)$. Strict monotonicity of Fermi gas entropy per particle makes $\mu /T$ constant at fixed entropy and particle number. Therefore $V{T}^{a+1}$ and $P{V}^{(a+2)/(a+1)}$ are constant along a reversible adiabatic process.

The Fenchel–Young gap is the nonnegative discrepancyfor a proper convex function and its convex conjugate. It can be $+\infty$. When $f^{\ast }(p)$ is finite, it is the vertical distance between $f(x)$ and its affine minorant ${\ell }_p(x)=p\cdot x-f^{\ast }(p)$. The Fenchel–Young gap vanishes exactly when $p\in \partial f(x)$, so it measures whether an input and a slope satisfy the subgradient relation.

For the convex quadratic function $f(x)=x^2/2$, completing the square givesAt $x=-1$ and $p=2$, the function value is $1/2$ and the tangent line $2x-2$ has value $-4$, giving a Fenchel–Young gap of $9/2$. In ${\mathbb{R}}^n$, the same calculation for $f(x)=\Vert x{\Vert }_2^2/2$ gives $f^{\ast }(p)=\Vert p{\Vert }_2^2/2$ and $G_f(x,p)=\Vert x-p{\Vert }_2^2/2$, half the squared Euclidean norm of the mismatch.

An exact optimization error certificate. Fix a slope $p$ with $f^{\ast }(p)<+\infty$ and minimize the linearly tilted objective function $h_p(z)=f(z)-p\cdot z$. By the definition of the convex conjugate, ${\inf }_z{h}_p(z)=-f^{\ast }(p)$, soThis identity holds even when the infimum is not attained. Thus a computed finite Fenchel–Young gap is exactly the error in objective value for this minimization problem. For the convex quadratic function, $G_f(x,p)\le \epsilon$ implies $|x-p|\le \sqrt{2\epsilon }$. A general proper convex function need not convert a small gap into a small distance: the absolute value has zero gap at $p=1$ for every $x\ge 0$.

The Fenchel–Young gap also connects convex analysis to optimal transport. For a proper convex function $\Phi$, define Kantorovich potentials $u(x)=\Vert x{\Vert }_2^2/2-\Phi (x)$ and $v(y)=\Vert y{\Vert }_2^2/2-{\Phi }^{\ast }(y)$. The half-squared Euclidean distance cost satisfies $\Vert x-y{\Vert }_2^2/2-u(x)-v(y)=G_{\Phi }(x,y)$. For a transport plan with finite integrated cost and integrable Kantorovich potentials, integrating this identity gives the difference between transport cost and the potentials' bound. This is the same local subgradient mismatch summed over transported pairs.

For fixed positive integers $r,s$ and sufficiently large $n$, the unique extremal graph forbidding $s$ vertex-disjoint copies of the complete graph $K_{r+1}$ is the join of graphs $K_{s-1}+T_r(n-s+1)$, up to isomorphic graphs. Each forbidden clique would require a distinct vertex of $K_{s-1}$.

For a polynomial ring $A$, a degree-$p$ polynomial polyvector field is an element of ${\bigwedge }_A^p{\mathrm{Der}}_k(A)$. Its product is the exterior product. Together with the Schouten-Nijenhuis bracket these spaces form a Gerstenhaber algebra.

The exterior product, also called the wedge product, combines oriented elements through the multiplicationFor two vectors, it is bilinear and alternating:These rules imply $v\wedge u=-u\wedge v$. They distinguish the exterior product from both the symmetric dot product and the unconstrained tensor product.^[ref]

In an oriented orthonormal plane, write $u=(a,b)$ and $v=(c,d)$. Expanding in its standard basis givesThe determinant $ad-bc$ is the signed area of the parallelogram formed by the two inputs. Its absolute value is the ordinary area. Reversing the input order reverses the sign; parallel inputs produce zero.

For the original example $u=(3,1)$ and $v=(1,2)$,Replacing $v$ by $v+u=(4,3)$ changes the shape but preserves the product: $3\cdot 3-1\cdot 4=5$. Both parallelograms have the same oriented area element. If $v=2u$, the exterior product is zero, since $u\wedge (2u)=2(u\wedge u)=0$.

The same rule adds directions in higher dimensions. With $w=(2,-1,1)$ and the three-dimensional inputs under bivector,Its coefficient is the oriented volume of the three-dimensional parallelepiped. Repeating or linearly depending on earlier inputs collapses the volume, giving zero.

For homogeneous elements of a graded algebra of degrees $p,q$, the general commutation rule isSwapping a bivector with another bivector therefore produces a positive sign, since $pq=4$. It is the number of individual vector swaps that controls the sign, not a rule that every pair of objects must anticommute.

Partition the isomorphism classes of simple modules into two sets ${\mathcal{C}}_1,{\mathcal{C}}_2$, with ${\mathrm{Ext}}^1(S,T)={\mathrm{Ext}}^1(T,S)=0$ whenever $S,T$ lie in different sets. Every module $M$ of finite composition length then has a unique decomposition $M=U_1\oplus U_2$ into its largest submodules whose Jordan–Hölder factors belong to the respective sets.

For a simple $S\in {\mathcal{C}}_1$ and a finite-length $N$ with factors in ${\mathcal{C}}_2$, induction through the long exact sequence of the Ext functor gives ${\mathrm{Ext}}^1(S,N)=0$. Induct on the length of $M$: take $0\to N\to M\to S\to 0$, split $N=N_1\oplus N_2$, and suppose $S\in {\mathcal{C}}_1$. The quotient extension $0\to N_2\to M/N_1\to S\to 0$ splits. The inverse image of its $S$-summand complements $N_2$ in $M$ and has only factors in ${\mathcal{C}}_1$. Finally, Hom between modules with factors in different sets is zero, since any nonzero image would have a factor in both sets. Projecting any proposed submodule to the opposite summand therefore proves maximality and uniqueness.

Hyperbolic functions combine the exponential function to describe a hyperbola much as trigonometric functions describe a circle. Their two basic members are the hyperbolic cosine and hyperbolic sine, defined for every real number $t$ byTheir derivatives exchange the two functions:These formulas follow by applying differentiation to the exponential function definitions. ^[ref]

Adding and subtracting gives $\cosh t+\sinh t=e^t$ and $\cosh t-\sinh t=e^{-t}$. Multiplying these equalities proves the hyperbolic Pythagorean identity:Consequently the parametric equation $(x,y)=(\cosh t,\sinh t)$ traverses the entire right branch of the unit hyperbola $x^2-y^2=1$, where $x\ge 1$. For example, $t=0$ gives $(1,0)$, while $t=\pm 1$ gives approximately $(1.543,\pm 1.175)$. Compare $(\cos \theta ,\sin \theta )$ on the unit circle, where the squared coordinates add to one. The minus sign changes the geometry from a closed circle to an unbounded hyperbola.

The other members are ratios and reciprocals: hyperbolic tangent is $\tanh t=\sinh t/\cosh t$, hyperbolic cotangent is $\coth t=\cosh t/\sinh t$, and hyperbolic secant is $\mathrm{sech}t=1/\cosh t$; denominators must be nonzero. The hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine both solve the second-order linear differential equation $f^{\prime \prime }=f$. In fact $f(t)=A\cosh t+B\sinh t$ has $f(0)=A$ and $f^{\prime }(0)=B$, making this basis convenient for an initial value problem. Their geometry also makes hyperbolic substitution useful for integrals containing $\sqrt{1+u^2}$, and the hyperbolic cosine gives the physical catenary of a hanging chain.

For independent bond percolation on ${\mathbb{Z}}^d$ below the percolation critical probability, there are $K,c>0$ such that ${\mathbb{P}}_p(|C(x)|\ge n)\le K{e}^{-cn}$, uniformly in $x$. This concerns the number of vertices in a percolation cluster, a stronger conclusion than decay of its radius alone.

Take a planet with opaque radius $R_p$ and an atmosphere of thickness $z\ll R_p$, projected against a uniform stellar disc of radius $R_{\star }$. If the atmospheric annulus has one representative slant optical depth ${\tau }_{\lambda }$, its additional transit depth isThe general exoplanet transmission spectrum instead uses an integral over impact parameter $b$,The annulus model replaces this varying slant opacity by an effective constant. The atmospheric signal scales with optical depth when optically thin and saturates at the annular area when opaque.

Condensation followed by gravitational settling removes chemical elements from an atmospheric layer. The remaining gas may be in local chemical equilibrium with a depleted elemental inventory, while the column is not a closed equilibrium system.

Doppler spectroscopy detects an exoplanet through the host star's changing Doppler shift. Both bodies orbit their shared astronomical barycenter: the star undergoes stellar reflex motion even when the exoplanet itself is unseen. Its velocity along the line of sight shifts its spectral lines; at speeds small compared with the speed of light, $\Delta \lambda /\lambda \simeq v_r/c$, with positive $v_r$ for recession. Repeated measurements can fit a Kepler orbit, rather than merely detect one shifted spectrum. Starspots and other changes in stellar spectral lines must be distinguished from actual orbital motion.

For one companion in an isolated two-body problem, the stellar radial-velocity semi-amplitude isHere $G$ is the gravitational constant, $P$ the orbital period, $e$ the orbital eccentricity, and $M_{\star },M_p$ the star and exoplanet masses. The orbital inclination $i$ is measured relative to the sky plane: $i=0$ is face-on and $i=90^{\circ }$ is an edge-on orbit. The exact binary mass function measured from the fitted orbit isWith known $M_{\star }$ and $M_p\ll M_{\star }$, this is usually reported as $M_p\sin i$. Taking $\sin i=1$ gives the minimum companion mass; a smaller orbital inclination allows a larger mass. A detected exoplanet transit constrains $i$ close to $90^{\circ }$ for a compact planet orbiting well outside the star's surface, substantially resolving this ambiguity. Combining Doppler spectroscopy and exoplanet transit photometry then supplies a mass and radius for exoplanet interior studies.

For a computed circular example, let $q=M_p/M_{\star }=0.001$ and choose a relative orbital speed $V_{\mathrm{rel}}=100\mathrm{km}{\mathrm{s}}^{-1}$: this is the speed of the planet relative to the star, not its speed about the astronomical barycenter. Conservation of momentum givesThe barycentric velocities point in opposite directions, so their speeds add to $V_{\mathrm{rel}}$. Here $e=0$ and $K=V_{\star }\sin i$: $K=99.9001\mathrm{m}{\mathrm{s}}^{-1}$ at $i=90^{\circ }$, $49.9500\mathrm{m}{\mathrm{s}}^{-1}$ at $i=30^{\circ }$, and zero at $i=0$. The star still orbits in the face-on case, but its orbital velocity has no line-of-sight component. The plotted circular signal is $v_r(t)-\gamma =K\sin (2\pi t/P)$ for a chosen phase origin and constant system velocity $\gamma$.

Exoplanet transit photometry measures the decrease in a star's observed radiative flux during an exoplanet transit. Define $F_0$ as the unobscured star's observed radiative flux and $F(t)$ as the value at time $t$. For a dark, opaque exoplanet crossing a uniformly bright circular stellar disc, a fully superimposed planetary disc blocks exactly the fractionHere $R_p$ and $R_{\star }$ are the planet and star radii. This exoplanet transit depth determines a radius ratio, $R_p/R_{\star }=\sqrt{\delta }$; an absolute planet radius requires an independently estimated stellar radius. For $R_p/R_{\star }=0.10$, $\delta =0.010$: a one-percent dip, with $F_{\mathrm{full}}/F_0=0.990$. Halving the radius ratio to $0.05$ reduces the exoplanet transit depth to $0.0025$, a quarter as much.

For the central exoplanet transit illustrated below, the transit impact parameter is $b=0$. Write $k=R_p/R_{\star }<1$ and let $z$ be the projected centre-to-centre separation in units of $R_{\star }$. The light curve is $F/F_0=1-A(z)/\pi$, where $A(z)$ is the overlap area of circles of radii $1$ and $k$. There is no overlap when $z\ge 1+k$; the planetary disc is fully inside when $z\le 1-k$, giving $A=\pi k^2$. Between those limits, the overlap area grows or shrinks continuously. Thus even a uniform star has curved ingress and egress, with a flat bottom only during full overlap. The illustration uses approximately constant transverse velocity over the short crossing, so $z=|ut|/R_{\star }$ with mid-transit at $t=0$. Analytic models also handle limb darkening. ^[ref].

The simple exoplanet transit depth formula assumes constant stellar brightness, no limb darkening or starspots, negligible light from the exoplanet, and no transit dilution by other light. It describes full overlap in a non-grazing exoplanet transit, requiring $b<1-k$ for a full-overlap interval. A grazing exoplanet transit never hides the whole planetary disc against the star, and limb darkening weights different blocked areas differently. Repeating dips are valuable evidence, but eclipsing binary stars and starspots can imitate parts of the signal, so confirmation and joint modelling matter.

An exoplanet thermal phase curve measures infrared brightness throughout the orbit. Its amplitude constrains day-night heat redistribution, while its maximum's displacement from secondary eclipse constrains the offset of the hottest atmospheric region. Wavelength-dependent opacity makes different channels probe different pressures.

The atmospheric advection time over length $L$ at wind speed $U$ is ${\tau }_{\mathrm{adv}}\sim L/U$. Day-night heat redistribution tends to be efficient when this time and the relevant wave-adjustment time are shorter than the radiative relaxation time in a planetary atmosphere.

A column near pressure $p$ contains mass per area of order $p/g$. Linearizing its blackbody cooling around temperature $T$ gives the estimatewhere $c_p$ is specific heat capacity at constant pressure. This estimate omits details of wavelength-dependent radiative transfer, but captures faster relaxation in hotter and lower-pressure atmospheric layers.

For an integer-valued underlying with European call option prices $C(T,K)=\mathbb{E}(S_T-K{)}^{+}$, the second strike difference equals $\mathbb{P}(S_T=K)$. It is the discrete counterpart of recovering a payoff probability distribution from strike derivatives.

For a martingale with increments in $\{-1,0,1\}$, European call option prices satisfy $C(T+1,K)-C(T,K)=\frac{1}{2}{\sigma }^2(T,K)(C(T,K+1)-2C(T,K)+C(T,K-1))$. At positive-probability states, the variance and the upward/downward conditional transitions are determined by this identity; transitions at zero-probability states cannot be recovered.

The Mellin transform of call prices can be inverted along a vertical contour with real part $x_0>1$: $C(k)=\frac{1}{2\pi i}{\int }_{x_0-i\infty }^{x_0+i\infty }\mathbb{E}{e}^{z\xi }/(z(z-1)e^{(z-1)k})dz$. A finite exponential moment at $x_0$ and the quadratic denominator give absolute convergence.

A sequence $(x_n)$ in $\mathbb{R}/\mathbb{Z}$ is equidistributed if the limiting frequency in every half-open interval equals that interval's length. Equivalently, its empirical probability measures converge to normalized Lebesgue measure when tested against every continuous function.