Engineering is a disciplined and systematic approach to designing, building, and maintaining structures, machines, systems, and technologies. It applies principles of mathematics, physics, biology, chemistry, and other scientific fields to solve practical problems and create innovative solutions. Key aspects of engineering include: 1. **Problem Solving**: Engineers identify challenges and develop practical solutions through analysis, design, and testing.

Biological determinism is a theory that suggests that human behaviors, traits, and social structures are primarily determined by biological factors, such as genetics and physiology, rather than by environmental influences or socialization. According to this perspective, aspects such as intelligence, personality, and even social roles are attributable to an individual's biological makeup.

Boundary-work is a concept used primarily in sociology and the philosophy of science to describe the practices, strategies, and discourses employed to delineate the boundaries between different fields, disciplines, or social spaces. This concept is often discussed in the context of how scientific knowledge is produced and legitimized, as well as how expertise is established and maintained. Key aspects of boundary-work include: 1. **Demarcation**: Establishing what counts as legitimate knowledge or expertise within a particular field while excluding others.

The "Carnap Papers" typically refer to the collection of papers, writings, and unpublished manuscripts by Rudolf Carnap, a prominent 20th-century philosopher known for his work in logic, philosophy of language, and philosophy of science. Carnap was a leading figure in the Vienna Circle and a key proponent of logical positivism, which emphasized the importance of logical analysis and empirical verification in philosophical inquiry.

Pratītyasamutpāda, often translated as "dependent origination" or "dependent arising," is a key concept in Buddhist philosophy that describes the nature of existence and the interconnectedness of all phenomena. It explains how all things arise in dependence upon multiple causes and conditions rather than existing independently or inherently. The concept is often summarized in the phrase "when this is, that is; when this arises, that arises.

The Deductive-Nomological (DN) model, also known as the Hempel-Oppenheim model, is a framework in the philosophy of science that describes scientific explanation. It was primarily developed by philosophers Carl Hempel and Paul Oppenheim in the 20th century. According to the DN model, a scientific explanation consists of two main components: 1. **General Laws (Nomological)**: These are universal laws or general statements that describe regularities or patterns in nature.

The terms "hard science" and "soft science" are used to classify different fields of scientific study based on their methodologies, rigor, and the nature of the phenomena they investigate. ### Hard Science: - **Definition**: Hard sciences typically refer to fields that rely on empirical data, quantitative measurements, and rigorous experimental methods. They often produce results that can be consistently replicated and verified.

Impact evaluation is a systematic assessment that aims to determine the changes that can be attributed to a particular intervention, program, or policy. It seeks to identify the causal effects of an intervention on specified outcomes by comparing the results of the intervention group to a counterfactual—what would have happened in the absence of the intervention. Key features of impact evaluation include: 1. **Causality**: It focuses explicitly on establishing a causal link between the intervention and observed changes.

The Lakatos Award is a distinguished recognition in the field of philosophy of science. It was established in 2002 by the London School of Economics (LSE) in memory of the Hungarian philosopher Imre Lakatos, who made significant contributions to the philosophy of mathematics and science. The award is given annually to a research project or a book that makes a notable contribution to the philosophy of science.

"Not even wrong" is a phrase coined by physicist Wolfgang Pauli, often used to describe a theory or idea that is so far from reality or empirical evidence that it cannot even be classified as incorrect. Essentially, it implies that the argument or hypothesis is so misguided that it fails to meet the basic criteria for being considered a legitimate scientific theory; it's not just wrong, but fundamentally misguided.

Observation is the process of closely monitoring and examining something to gather information and gain insights. It involves using one's senses—sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell—to detect and record details about an object, event, or phenomenon. In various contexts, observation can serve different purposes: 1. **Scientific Observation**: In scientific research, observation is used to collect data and test hypotheses. Scientists may conduct experiments or make field observations to study natural phenomena systematically.

A Ramsey sentence is a specific type of formal statement used in logic and philosophy to express the essential content of a theory without committing to the specific nature of its unobservable entities. Named after the philosopher Frank P. Ramsey, a Ramsey sentence allows for the formulation of a theory in a way that abstracts away from underlying assumptions about the existence or nature of the theoretical entities involved.

Science studies is an interdisciplinary field that examines the social, cultural, historical, and philosophical dimensions of science and technology. It seeks to understand how scientific knowledge is produced, disseminated, and applied, as well as the implications of scientific research on society and vice versa. Key areas of focus in science studies include: 1. **History of Science**: Investigating how scientific ideas have developed over time and how historical contexts influence scientific practices.

"Special sciences" refer to fields of study that are focused on specific areas of inquiry or particular subjects, as opposed to the "general sciences" that encompass broad and fundamental scientific principles. The term is often used in the context of the philosophy of science to highlight the relationship between different scientific disciplines and their unique methodologies, theories, and domains. The special sciences typically include areas such as: 1. **Biology**: The study of living organisms and their interactions with the environment.

Trial and error is a problem-solving method characterized by experimenting with various solutions until a satisfactory one is found. It involves a process of testing different approaches, learning from mistakes, and refining strategies based on the outcomes of previous attempts. This technique is often used when there is no clear or straightforward solution to a problem, and it can be applied in various fields, including science, engineering, education, and everyday life.

In statistics, "validity" refers to the degree to which a test, measurement, or experiment accurately represents the concept or construct it is intended to measure. It is a crucial aspect of research and data collection, as it influences the reliability and interpretability of results. Validity can be broken down into several types: 1. **Content Validity**: This assesses whether a measurement instrument covers the full domain of the concept being measured.

Paternalism is a concept that refers to the practice of managing or governing individuals or groups in a manner that is intended to protect their welfare, often overriding their personal autonomy or decision-making rights. The term derives from the Latin word "pater," meaning "father," and reflects the idea of a parental figure making decisions for others, typically with the belief that those decisions are in the best interest of the individuals concerned.

Role ethics is a philosophical perspective that emphasizes the importance of social roles and the responsibilities that come with them in determining moral behavior and ethical obligations. This approach focuses on the relationships individuals occupy in society—such as parent, teacher, friend, employee, or citizen—and the duties and expectations associated with those roles.

Elektronorgtechnica, often abbreviated as EOT, refers to a Soviet-era enterprise and research organization that specialized in the development and production of electronic components and equipment. Established during the height of the Soviet Union, it played a significant role in advancing technology within the country, particularly in areas related to electronics, telecommunications, and radio technology. The organization encompassed various facilities, including research and development centers, and was involved in both production and innovation.