Robert S. Paton coauthored research on radical.^[ref]

A radical has one or more unpaired electrons. In a simple atomic orbital or molecular orbital occupancy picture, an unpaired electron occupies a spatial orbital without an opposite-spin partner in that orbital. A dot such as ${\mathrm{H}}^{\bullet }$ marks this electronic property; it does not mean a missing electron or positive electric charge. Free radicals can be neutral or charged. Terminology also has a boundary: metal ions exhibiting paramagnetism are not normally called free radicals just because they have unpaired electrons.

Peter C. St. John coauthored research on radical.^[ref]

A radical has one or more unpaired electrons. In a simple atomic orbital or molecular orbital occupancy picture, an unpaired electron occupies a spatial orbital without an opposite-spin partner in that orbital. A dot such as ${\mathrm{H}}^{\bullet }$ marks this electronic property; it does not mean a missing electron or positive electric charge. Free radicals can be neutral or charged. Terminology also has a boundary: metal ions exhibiting paramagnetism are not normally called free radicals just because they have unpaired electrons.

Shree Sowndarya S. V. coauthored research on radical.^[ref]

A radical has one or more unpaired electrons. In a simple atomic orbital or molecular orbital occupancy picture, an unpaired electron occupies a spatial orbital without an opposite-spin partner in that orbital. A dot such as ${\mathrm{H}}^{\bullet }$ marks this electronic property; it does not mean a missing electron or positive electric charge. Free radicals can be neutral or charged. Terminology also has a boundary: metal ions exhibiting paramagnetism are not normally called free radicals just because they have unpaired electrons.

Nasima Arshad developed teaching material on following a chemical reaction through electrical conductance. In the ester–hydroxide example, replacement of hydroxide by acetate changes the ionic contribution to the signal; platinum electrodes and an alternating-voltage bridge provide the measurement.^[ref]

Josef Takats coauthored research on oxidation state.^[ref]

An oxidation state is an electron-bookkeeping assignment to a chemical atom: its electric charge number after the ionic approximation of bonds. It helps identify oxidation and reduction and determine stoichiometry, even for covalent bonds without separate charged ions. In water, each hydrogen has oxidation state $+1$ and oxygen has $-2$; this does not assert that a water molecule contains two free protons and a free oxide ion.

Patrick McArdle coauthored research on oxidation state.^[ref]

An oxidation state is an electron-bookkeeping assignment to a chemical atom: its electric charge number after the ionic approximation of bonds. It helps identify oxidation and reduction and determine stoichiometry, even for covalent bonds without separate charged ions. In water, each hydrogen has oxidation state $+1$ and oxygen has $-2$; this does not assert that a water molecule contains two free protons and a free oxide ion.

Pavel Karen coauthored research on oxidation state.^[ref]

An oxidation state is an electron-bookkeeping assignment to a chemical atom: its electric charge number after the ionic approximation of bonds. It helps identify oxidation and reduction and determine stoichiometry, even for covalent bonds without separate charged ions. In water, each hydrogen has oxidation state $+1$ and oxygen has $-2$; this does not assert that a water molecule contains two free protons and a free oxide ion.

Tadeusz Michałowski coauthored research on buffer capacity.^[ref]

Buffer capacity measures resistance to a change in pH: how much additional chemical acid or chemical base a chemical solution accommodates per small change in pH. Its differential form is a local derivative, rather than the total inventory available before a buffer solution is exhausted. Two buffer solutions can have identical pH and very different buffer capacities.

Jonathan Gutow coauthored research on absorption.^[ref]

Absorption takes a chemical substance into a material's bulk, as when carbon dioxide dissolves in water. Adsorption instead concerns accumulation at a boundary. Bulk uptake and interfacial accumulation can coexist; total uptake alone does not separate their contributions. This use of absorption concerns material uptake, whereas absorbance describes attenuation of electromagnetic radiation.

James M. McCormick coauthored research on rotational spectroscopy.^[ref]

Rotational spectroscopy measures transitions between molecular rotation quantum states, usually in low-pressure gaseous molecules. The measured spectral lines become a molecular fingerprint only after rotational spectral line assignment: identify which transitions belong together, determine their quantum numbers, fit a rotational Hamiltonian, and test additional predictions. Line positions constrain moments of inertia, while rotational state populations and transition coupling determine which lines can be detected.

José E. Báez coauthored an investigation of polyester-urethane preparation from hydroxyl-terminated polycaprolactone. The study uses a factorial comparison of conditions and separate measures of conversion and molecular-size distribution to examine polymerization.^[ref]

Gustavo Cruz-Jiménez coauthored a study of how varied reaction conditions affect polyester-urethane formation. The work combines controlled comparisons with chemical-conversion and polymer-characterization measurements, linking the design of an experiment to the interpretation of its product.^[ref]

María Dolores de Dios Caputto coauthored an experimental design study of polyester-urethane synthesis. Independent conversion and gel permeation chromatography measurements help distinguish consumption of starting groups from changes in the polymer's molecular-size distribution.^[ref]

Ángel Marcos-Fernández coauthored an investigation of non-segmented polyester-urethanes made from hydroxyl-terminated polycaprolactone. Connecting reaction conditions with conversion and polymer characterization tests both chemical transformation and the properties of the material formed.^[ref]

Rodrigo Navarro Crespo coauthored a study using experimental design to examine polyester-urethane synthesis. The comparison of reaction conditions included a water-related effect, illustrating how an apparently minor component can influence the interpretation of a polymerization experiment.^[ref]

Jaime Maldonado-Estudillo coauthored an experimental-design study of polyester-urethanes. Varying reaction conditions made it possible to compare monomer conversion with the resulting polymer-size distribution, rather than treating one measurement as a complete description of polymer formation.^[ref]

Emilio Meaurio coauthored research on Carothers equation.^[ref]

For an original balanced feed of $2000$ monomer molecules, $1900$, $1960$, and $1990$ intermolecular joins give $p=0.95$, $0.98$, and $0.995$. The remaining counts are $100$, $40$, and $10$, hence number-average degree of polymerization values $20$, $50$, and $200$. The last thirty joins quadruple the average even though they consume only another $1.5\%$ of the initial groups of either type. These are exact synthetic counts, not experimental measurements.

Hong Gao coauthored research on measurement.^[ref]

A process for determining the value of a physical quantity relative to a reference and a stated model. A reported result must distinguish its numerical value, units and measurement uncertainty.

Pan Jiang coauthored research on measurement.^[ref]

A process for determining the value of a physical quantity relative to a reference and a stated model. A reported result must distinguish its numerical value, units and measurement uncertainty.