A meromorphic one-form on a compact Riemann surface with only simple poles is a differential of the third kind. Prescribed residues can be realized exactly when their sum is zero: in the residue exact sequence for $K_C(S)$, the obstruction in $H^1(C,K_C)\cong \mathbb{C}$ is the sum of residues. Subtracting a holomorphic differential form normalizes its $a$-periods. Integer residues and periods in $2\pi i\mathbb{Z}$ make the exponential of its integral a single-valued meromorphic function with those orders of zeros and poles.

Integration of holomorphic differential forms along cycles embeds the first homology group as a full Euclidean lattice in $H^0(C,K_C{)}^{\vee }$. Fixing a base point, sum the path integrals to the points of an effective complex analytic divisor. Different path choices differ by that lattice. The Abel theorem for divisors identifies the fibres with linear equivalence of divisors.

A Riemann surface which is compact as a topological space. For a connected one of genus $g$, the Riemann-Roch theorem gives $g$ independent holomorphic differential forms. The Riemann bilinear relations for a compact surface make their normalized periods a full lattice in ${\mathbb{C}}^g$, and the Abel-Jacobi map of a compact Riemann surface turns this lattice into a complex torus encoding divisor classes.

A noncompact Riemann surface is hyperbolic in potential theory when its Green-function exhaustion has a finite limit, equivalently when it admits a positive Green function on a Riemann surface. This definition does not assume a disk uniformization. The unit disk is an example, since $-\log |z|$ is its positive Green function with pole zero. For simply connected surfaces this is equivalent to being conformally equivalent to the disk. For general surfaces, potential-theoretic hyperbolicity should not be conflated with the condition that the universal cover is the disk: some surfaces with disk universal cover have no positive Green function.

A meromorphic differential is specified in each holomorphic chart by a meromorphic coefficient $f(z)$, with the coefficients transforming by the coordinate derivative so that the one-form agrees on overlaps. The derivative of a meromorphic function gives such a differential, and the ratio of two nonzero differentials is a meromorphic function. Orders of zeros and poles are independent of chart because coordinate derivatives are nonvanishing holomorphic factors. On a compact connected surface the sum of orders of a nonzero differential is $2g-2$, allowing its divisor to determine the genus.

Given any positive $k(n)\to \infty$, choose increasing integers $n_j$ with $k(n_j)\ge j{2}^j$. The absolutely uniformly convergent series $g(t)={\sum }_j{2}^{-j}{e}^{i{n}_{j}t}$ is continuous, and its Fourier coefficient at $n_j$ is exactly $2^{-j}$. The displayed unbounded limsup follows, although every individual continuous function still has coefficients tending to zero by the Riemann-Lebesgue lemma.

For a continuous function $f:[a,b]\to \mathbb{R}$ and an integrator $g$ of bounded variation, the Riemann-Stieltjes integral is the common limit, as the mesh of a partition tends to zero, ofUnlike an ordinary Riemann sum, it weights each sample by the change in $g$, rather than by the interval length. Uniform continuity of $f$ and the finite total variation of a function bound make the tagged sums Cauchy: passing to a common partition refinement changes a sum by at most the modulus of continuity of $f$ at its mesh times the total variation of a function of $g$.

If $g(x)=x$, this is the ordinary Riemann integral. If $g$ has a single unit jump at an interior point $c$ and is otherwise constant, the value is $f(c)$: all its weight concentrates at that point. For a continuous nondecreasing $g$, the associated Lebesgue-Stieltjes measure, with no atom at $a$, satisfies $\mu ((u,v])=g(v)-g(u)$ and gives the same integral. More general discontinuous integrators require attention to endpoint and one-sided conventions when identifying their signed measures.

Vector-valued integrators are treated componentwise. In particular, a continuous path of bounded variation permits the iterated Riemann-Stieltjes integrals defining its path signature.

Changing the value of a bounded Riemann-integrable function at one point preserves its Riemann integral. The difference is supported at that point: partitions isolating it in intervals of arbitrarily small total length make both Darboux sums tend to zero. Thus a nonnegative single-point spike can have zero integral without vanishing everywhere. Its indefinite integral is identically zero, so the fundamental theorem of calculus derivative identity can fail at the changed point despite differentiability of the primitive.

A small-angle cone rotating above a stationary plate imposes approximately uniform shear rate, since local gap and wall speed both scale with radius. Integrating the uniform shear stress with moment arm r over the plate gives the displayed torque. The leading approximation neglects edge effects and inertia.

For an incompressible flow of constant mass density $\rho$ and kinematic viscosity $\nu$, Reynolds averaging of the Navier-Stokes equation, without a body force, givesHere $\mathbf{u}=\mathbf{U}+{\mathbf{u}}^{\prime }$ and $\overline{{\mathbf{u}}^{\prime }}=0$, with averaging assumed to commute with the displayed derivatives. The mean acceleration ${\partial }_t{U}_i$ vanishes only when the averaged velocity field is stationary; taking an average does not by itself remove it.

To derive the extra term, average the conservative momentum flux: $\overline{u_i{u}_j}=U_i{U}_j+\overline{u_i^{\prime }{u}_j^{\prime }}$. Mean incompressibility turns the divergence of the first product into $U_j{\partial }_j{U}_i$. The second product is the Reynolds stress divided by mass density, using the positive-covariance convention. It describes transport of mean momentum by fluctuating velocities. A turbulence closure is needed because that covariance is an additional unknown, rather than a specified molecular transport coefficient.

An eddy viscosity parametrizes turbulent momentum transport by $\overline{u^{\prime }{v}^{\prime }}=-{\nu }_T{U}_y$. The mixing length model gives ${\nu }_T=l^2|U_y|\ge 0$. This coefficient depends on the mean flow and position; it is distinct from molecular kinematic viscosity. It describes momentum transport rather than molecular energy dissipation.

For a stationary, horizontally homogeneous mean flow without a horizontal pressure gradient, the averaged horizontal Navier-Stokes equation is $\nu U_{zz}-(\overline{u^{\prime }{w}^{\prime }}{)}_z=0$. Integrating gives the displayed physical shear stress. The derivative of the Reynolds covariance belongs in the stress-divergence equation, not inside the stress itself. The kinematic stress is ${\tau }_d/\rho$, which must be used when an eddy viscosity with units of kinematic viscosity multiplies the mean gradient.

For shear ${\mathbf{u}}_0=-2Ax{\mathbf{e}}_y$, the spatially averaged perturbation kinetic energy obeys $dE/dt=2A\rho ⟨u_x^{\prime }{u}_y^{\prime }⟩-\rho \nu ⟨|\nabla {\mathbf{u}}^{\prime }{|}^2⟩$. Pressure and the Coriolis force do no net work. Thus positive radial-azimuthal velocity correlation extracts mean-flow energy. A leading two-dimensional shearing wave has $\mathrm{Re}(v_x{v}_y^{\ast })=-k_x{k}_y|Z{|}^2/k^4>0$.

// Target: astrophysics.bigb

Rotating anisotropic convection can produce an azimuthal-meridional velocity correlation even without a gradient of the mean rotation rate. Its Reynolds stress transports angular momentum and can drive differential rotation, whereas a purely viscous closure only erases shear. Energy comes from the thermally driven convection; the Coriolis force changes the correlations but does no work on a parcel.

At zero frequency, sum the Kaluza-Klein tower of three-spatial-dimensional Yukawa kernels: $[4\pi Rr{]}^{-1}(1+2{\sum }_{n\ge 1}{e}^{-2\pi nr/R})$. The geometric series gives the displayed function. It behaves as $1/(4{\pi }^2{r}^2)$ for $r\ll R$, the four-spatial-dimensional Coulomb kernel, and as $1/(4\pi Rr)$ for $r\gg R$, the three-spatial-dimensional kernel with a zero-mode normalization factor.

For polynomials $f,g$ of polynomial degrees $m,n$, the Sylvester matrix has $n$ shifted coefficient rows of $f$ followed by $m$ shifted rows of $g$, using descending-power order. It is a square matrix of size $m+n$. Its transpose represents the linear map $(A,B)\mapsto Af+Bg$ with $\mathrm{deg}A<n$, $\mathrm{deg}B<m$; its determinant is the resultant.

For an original parameter example, choose $f(x)=x^2-1$ and $g_t(x)=x-t$. ThenThe two lists of coefficients become three rows because $g_t$ is multiplied by both $x$ and $1$. Thus the common-root parameter values are $t=-1$ and $t=1$. At $t=1/2$, the resultant is $-3/4$, so the two polynomials have no common root.

One can verify the certificate without any determinant expansion:For $t\ne \pm 1$, division by $t^2-1$ gives a Bézout's identity for polynomials. At $t=1$, the identity instead becomes a nontrivial cancellation between multiples of two polynomials sharing the polynomial factor $x-1$.

The general proof needs only a short linear algebra outline. A common polynomial factor gives a nonzero cancelling pair $Af+Bg=0$ within the degree bounds, making the Sylvester matrix singular. Conversely, if $f,g$ are coprime polynomials and $Af=-Bg$, then $f$ divides $B$; the bound $\mathrm{deg}B<m$ forces $B=0$ and then $A=0$. Thus the linear map has zero kernel of a linear map exactly in the coprime case. Over an algebraic closure, a nonconstant common polynomial factor is equivalent to a common root.

In 1840, James Joseph Sylvester described forming the shifted coefficient rows and taking a signed sum of products selected by permutations. In modern notation, this is the Sylvester matrix and its determinant. The construction turns the nonlinear common-root of a polynomial question into linear algebra. His paper's word derivatives concerns elimination, rather than the formal derivative used below.^[ref]

A resonance hybrid is the combined electronic description expressed using several resonance structures. The word does not describe a mixture of separate molecules or ions: a nitrate ion has one electron density, rather than three species in chemical equilibrium. Equal weighting is appropriate for the equivalent nitrate contributors in the elementary model; the unequal carbon dioxide contributors illustrate why it is not a general rule. See Chemistry 2e, 7.4: resonance hybrids do not fluctuate between forms.

A resonance structure is one Lewis structure contributing to a chemical resonance description. The contributors retain the same atomic nuclei in the same positions, the same connections, and the same total valence electron count and electric charge; allocations of bond pairs, lone pairs, and formal charges differ. They are alternative representations of one electronic structure, not distinct substances with different atomic arrangements. See Chemistry 2e, 7.4: resonance forms.

For a small-slope inextensible filament with prescribed transverse coordinate $Y(s,t)$, tangential-to-normal resistance ratio $\gamma$, and head drag parameter $\delta$, transverse force balance gives $V={\int }_0^L{Y}_{t}ds/[L(1+\delta )]$. The mean axial swimming speed is $-(1-\gamma )⟨{\int }_0^L{Y}_s(Y_t-V)ds⟩/[L(\delta +\gamma )]$. The mean material longitudinal deformation velocity vanishes for a periodic inextensible stroke anchored longitudinally at its base. A moving base offset must be distinguished from a coordinate measured relative to the actual attachment point.

At leading order in slope, the hydrodynamic torque on the distal filament is $-\mu K_N{\int }_0^{L}s(Y_t-V)ds$. The displayed opposite torque is required at its base. It is the total internal bending moment; identifying it with the active moment assumes no separate passive elastic moment. If a passive moment is specified, subtract that contribution to determine the required active moment.