Molecular biology

Molecular biology is a branch of science that focuses on the study of biological processes at the molecular level. It encompasses the understanding of various biological phenomena through the examination of biomolecules, including DNA, RNA, and proteins, and how they interact to govern the structure, function, and regulation of living organisms.

Antibody mimetics are synthetic or engineered molecules designed to mimic the binding properties and functions of antibodies without being traditional antibodies themselves. These mimetics aim to provide similar benefits as antibodies, such as specificity and the ability to bind to particular antigens, but often with advantages like increased stability, reduced immunogenicity, or enhanced bioavailability.

Biomolecules are organic molecules that are essential for life. They are the building blocks of living organisms and play crucial roles in various biological processes. Biomolecules can be classified into four main categories: 1. **Carbohydrates**: These are organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and they typically have a general formula of (CH₂O)n. Carbohydrates serve as a primary source of energy for many organisms and are important for cell structure.

Electrophoresis is a laboratory technique used to separate molecules, such as DNA, RNA, or proteins, based on their size and charge. The fundamental principle behind electrophoresis is that charged molecules will migrate in an electric field; negatively charged molecules will move towards the positive electrode, while positively charged molecules will move towards the negative electrode.

Membrane biology is a branch of cellular biology that focuses on the structure, function, and dynamics of biological membranes. These membranes are crucial components of cells and organelles, playing a key role in maintaining the integrity of cells and facilitating communication and transport within and between cells. Key aspects of membrane biology include: 1. **Membrane Structure**: Biological membranes are primarily composed of phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates.

Molecular biology is a branch of science that focuses on the molecular basis of biological activity. It intersects with other areas such as genetics, biochemistry, and cell biology. Here are some molecular-biology-related lists that could be useful for students, researchers, or anyone interested in this field: ### 1.

Molecular and Cellular Biology journals are scientific publications that focus on the study of biological processes at the molecular and cellular levels. These journals publish research articles, reviews, and other types of content that contribute to our understanding of various aspects of biology, including but not limited to: 1. **Molecular Biology**: This area covers the structure and function of molecules essential for life, such as DNA, RNA, proteins, and their interactions.

Molecular biologists are scientists who study the structure, function, and interactions of biological molecules, particularly nucleic acids (like DNA and RNA) and proteins. Their work often focuses on understanding how these molecules contribute to the processes of life at a cellular and molecular level. Key areas of research for molecular biologists include: 1. **Gene Expression**: Investigating how genes are turned on or off and how this regulation affects cell function and development.

Molecular biology organizations are professional associations, societies, or institutions that focus on the study, research, and advancement of molecular biology, a field that explores the structure and function of biological macromolecules and their interactions within cells. These organizations often facilitate collaboration among researchers, provide resources for education and training, organize conferences and workshops, publish scientific journals, and promote public awareness of molecular biology.

In the context of Wikipedia and similar online platforms, "stubs" refer to articles that are considered incomplete or lacking sufficient detail. A "molecular biology stub" would specifically refer to an article related to molecular biology that provides only basic information and is not fully developed. These articles typically require expansion to include more comprehensive content, such as detailed explanations, additional context, references, and relevant examples.

Molecular biology techniques are a set of methods used to study and manipulate the molecular basis of biological activity. These techniques focus on understanding the interactions between various cellular systems, including DNA, RNA, proteins, and their biosynthesis and regulation. Here are some common molecular biology techniques: 1. **Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)**: A technique used to amplify specific DNA sequences, making millions of copies of a particular segment of DNA.

Molecular biophysics is an interdisciplinary field that combines principles of biology, physics, and chemistry to study biological processes at the molecular level. It focuses on understanding the physical properties and behaviors of biomolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and membranes, using various physical techniques and theoretical approaches.

Molecular evolution is a field of biology that examines the process of evolution at a molecular level, focusing on the changes in the genetic material of organisms over time. This area of study encompasses the evolution of various molecular components, including DNA, RNA, proteins, and other biomolecules. Here are some key aspects of molecular evolution: 1. **Genetic Variation**: Molecular evolution investigates how mutations, genetic drift, natural selection, and other processes contribute to genetic variation within and between populations.

Molecular genetics is a branch of genetics that focuses on the molecular structure and function of genes. It combines principles from molecular biology, biochemistry, and genetics to study the role of genes in heredity, variation, and the mechanisms of genetic expression and regulation. Key areas of molecular genetics include: 1. **Gene Structure and Function**: Understanding how genes are organized, including their sequence, regulation, and the production of RNA and proteins.

Molecular neuroscience is a branch of neuroscience that focuses on the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the functioning of the nervous system. It seeks to understand how molecules, such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, influence the development, structure, and function of neurons and their connections (synapses). This field combines principles from molecular biology, genetics, biochemistry, and cellular biology to explore various aspects of neuronal function.

Peptides are short chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. They are smaller than proteins, which are typically made up of hundreds or thousands of amino acids. Generally, peptides consist of between 2 to 50 amino acids, while proteins are composed of 50 or more amino acids. Peptides play a variety of roles in biological processes, including: 1. **Hormones**: Some peptides function as hormones that regulate physiological processes in the body.

Proteins are large, complex molecules made up of chains of amino acids. They are essential macromolecules found in all living organisms and are vital for numerous biological functions. Here are some key points about proteins: 1. **Structure**: Proteins are composed of one or more long chains (polypeptides) of amino acids, which are linked together by peptide bonds. The specific sequence of amino acids determines a protein’s unique structure and function.

2A self-cleaving peptides refer to a specific class of peptides that facilitate the separation of proteins during the translation process in a cell. These peptides, which include the well-studied 2A peptide derived from the foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), exhibit a unique ability to induce a ribosomal stalling and cleavage process, allowing for the production of multiple proteins from a single mRNA transcript.

The 43S pre-initiation complex (PIC) is a crucial assembly in the process of translation initiation in eukaryotic cells. It is formed before the start of protein synthesis and plays a key role in the recognition of the mRNA and the recruitment of the ribosomal subunits necessary for translation.

Abortion initiation refers to the process where a pregnancy is intentionally terminated, and "abortive initiation" specifically pertains to the methods and practices used to begin this process. There are several approaches to abortion, including: 1. **Medical Abortion**: Involves the use of medications to induce an abortion. This typically includes a combination of mifepristone (which blocks the hormone progesterone) and misoprostol (which causes the uterus to contract and expel its contents).

Acid guanidinium thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform extraction is a biochemical technique primarily used for the isolation and purification of RNA from biological samples. This method is effective in disrupting cellular structures and denaturing proteins, which allows for the efficient extraction of nucleic acids.

Activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein (Arc), also known as Arg3.1, is a protein that plays a crucial role in synaptic plasticity and memory formation. It is primarily expressed in neurons and is regulated by neuronal activity, which means its expression can be increased following synaptic stimulation.

Affinity electrophoresis is a specialized technique used to separate and analyze biomolecules, usually proteins or nucleic acids, based on their specific interactions with other molecules. This method combines the principles of electrophoresis with affinity chromatography, relying on the specific binding characteristics between an analyte and a ligand. In affinity electrophoresis, the separation process is typically performed on a gel or in a solution where the desired ligand is immobilized.

Affinity magnetic separation is a technique used to isolate or purify specific biomolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, or cells, based on their affinity to magnetic particles. This method combines the principles of affinity chromatography and magnetic separation. Here's a general overview of how it works: 1. **Magnetic Particles**: The process involves the use of magnetic beads or particles that are coated with specific ligands (molecules that can bind to the target of interest).

Agarose gel electrophoresis is a widely used laboratory technique for the separation and analysis of macromolecules, primarily nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), based on their size and charge. The method involves several key components and steps: 1. **Agarose Gel Creation**: Agarose, a polysaccharide derived from seaweed, is mixed with a buffer solution and heated to dissolve.

Alkaline lysis is a molecular biology technique used primarily for the extraction of plasmid DNA from bacterial cells, particularly from *Escherichia coli*. This method is effective due to the ability of alkaline conditions to disrupt cell membranes and to denature proteins and nucleic acids.

Allele-specific oligonucleotides (ASOs) are short, single-stranded DNA or RNA sequences that are designed to hybridize specifically to particular alleles of a gene. These oligonucleotides are typically 15-30 nucleotides long and are used in various applications, primarily in genetic analysis and diagnostics.

Alloenzymes are variants of enzymes that have different structural forms but catalyze the same biochemical reaction. These variants arise from allelic differences in the genes that encode the enzyme, leading to slight variations in the amino acid sequence. Alloenzymes can differ in terms of their kinetic properties, stability, and regulation, but they serve the same function within the metabolic pathways of an organism.

Aminoallyl nucleotides are modified nucleotides that have an amino group and an allyl group integrated into their structure. These nucleotides are often used in molecular biology and biochemistry for various applications, primarily in the context of nucleic acid labeling, sequencing, and microarray experiments.

Amphipathic lipid packing sensor motifs (ALPS motifs) are structural features found in certain proteins that can interact with lipid membranes in specific ways. These motifs typically contain both hydrophilic (water-attracting) and hydrophobic (water-repelling) regions, allowing them to interact with the amphipathic nature of lipid bilayers. **Key Characteristics of ALPS Motifs:** 1.

An amplicon is a piece of DNA that has been amplified, typically through a process like polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This amplification process allows for the creation of millions of copies of a specific DNA sequence, which can then be used for various purposes in molecular biology, genetics, and biotechnology. Amplicons are often used in various applications including: 1. **Genetic Testing**: To identify genetic mutations or variations associated with diseases.

Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) is a molecular biology technique used for genetic fingerprinting, genetic mapping, and population genetics. It is a powerful tool for assessing genetic diversity, analyzing genetic relationships among individuals or populations, and identifying specific traits. ### Key Steps of AFLP: 1. **Genomic DNA Extraction**: DNA is extracted from the organism of interest.

Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA) is a statistical method used to analyze genetic variation within and between populations at the molecular level. It is especially useful in population genetics and evolutionary biology for examining how genetic diversity is distributed across different groups or populations.

Ancestral sequence reconstruction (ASR) is a computational technique used in evolutionary biology to infer the genetic sequences (DNA, RNA, or protein sequences) of ancestral organisms based on the sequences of their descendant species. Researchers use ASR to hypothesize the sequences that might have existed in common ancestors, thereby providing insights into evolutionary processes, functional characteristics of ancient proteins, and the history of genetic changes over time.

Anfinsen's dogma, named after biochemist Christian Anfinsen, refers to the principle that the three-dimensional structure of a protein is determined by its amino acid sequence. This concept emerged from Anfinsen's work in the 1960s, particularly his experiments with the enzyme ribonuclease A.

The Ankyrin-G binding motif in KCNQ2-3 refers to a specific sequence of amino acids that facilitates the interaction between the KCNQ2 and KCNQ3 potassium channels and the ankyrin-G protein. Ankyrin-G is a cytoskeletal protein that helps anchor ion channels and other membrane proteins to the cytoskeleton and plays a crucial role in maintaining the proper localization and stability of these channels at the cell membrane.

Antigen transfer in the thymus refers to the process by which antigens or antigenic fragments are presented to developing T cells (thymocytes) within the thymus organ. However, it's important to clarify that unlike peripheral immune organs, the thymus itself does not actively present foreign antigens for the selection of T cells. Instead, it plays a crucial role in the development and selection of T cells that can recognize self-antigens appropriately to maintain self-tolerance and avoid autoimmunity.

Archaeal translation refers to the process by which archaea, a distinct domain of life separate from bacteria and eukaryotes, synthesize proteins from messenger RNA (mRNA) templates. This process includes several key components: initiation, elongation, termination, and post-translation modifications, and it is fundamentally similar to protein synthesis in eukaryotes, although there are some notable differences.

Arginine catabolic mobile element (ACME) refers to a specific genomic element found in some strains of *Staphylococcus aureus*, particularly in methicillin-resistant *Staphylococcus aureus* (MRSA). ACME is known for harboring genes that are involved in the catabolism of arginine, an amino acid.

The term "arginine finger" is primarily used in the context of biochemistry and molecular biology, particularly in relation to proteins and enzymes. It refers to a specific structural motif that involves the amino acid arginine. This motif is often found in proteins that interact with nucleic acids, such as DNA or RNA. In many cases, the arginine finger plays a crucial role in the binding of the protein to nucleic acids, stabilizing the complex or facilitating enzymatic activity.

BIOPAN is a European scientific experiment platform designed for astrobiology and biotechnology research. It was developed by the European Space Agency (ESA) and is often used to study the effects of space on biological materials. BIOPAN consists of a small container that can hold various samples, including microorganisms, plant seeds, and biological tissues. The platform is typically mounted on the outside of spacecraft, such as the International Space Station (ISS), exposing the samples to the space environment for a defined period.

The term "BSD domain" can refer to several concepts depending on the context. Here are the two most common usages related to "BSD": 1. **BSD Operating Systems**: BSD stands for Berkeley Software Distribution, a Unix-like operating system that originated from the University of California, Berkeley. BSD operating systems include FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD, and DragonFly BSD, among others.

Bacterial conjugation is a process by which bacteria transfer genetic material between one another through direct cell-to-cell contact. This typically occurs via a structure called a pili, which is a hair-like appendage that allows one bacterium (the donor) to connect to another (the recipient). The main steps involved in bacterial conjugation are: 1. **Formation of Pilus**: The donor bacterium produces a pilus that attaches to the recipient bacterium.

Bacterial initiation factors are proteins that play crucial roles in the initiation phase of protein synthesis (translation) in bacteria. The process of translation begins with the assembly of the ribosome on the messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule, and initiation factors facilitate this process by helping to position the ribosome correctly and ensuring that the translation machinery operates efficiently.

Bacterial Initiation Factor 1 (IF1) is a protein that plays a critical role in the initiation of translation in bacteria. It is a part of the machinery that helps initiate protein synthesis by facilitating the formation of the initiation complex between ribosomal subunits and the messenger RNA (mRNA).

Bacterial initiation factor 2 (IF2) is a key protein involved in the initiation phase of translation in bacteria. It plays a crucial role in the assembly of the ribosome and the formation of the initiation complex necessary for protein synthesis. Here are some key points about IF2: 1. **Function**: IF2 facilitates the binding of the initiator tRNA (transfer RNA) to the ribosome.

Bacterial translation is the process through which ribosomes synthesize proteins using messenger RNA (mRNA) as a template in bacterial cells. It is a crucial step in gene expression, where the genetic information encoded in DNA is translated into functional proteins that perform various roles within the cell. Here's a brief overview of the key components and steps involved in bacterial translation: ### Key Components 1. **mRNA**: The messenger RNA carries the genetic information copied from DNA and provides the template for protein synthesis.

BamHI is a type II restriction enzyme that is commonly used in molecular biology for DNA manipulation and cloning. It recognizes a specific DNA sequence and cleaves the DNA at that site. The recognition sequence for BamHI is the palindromic sequence 5'-GGATCC-3'. When BamHI cuts DNA, it produces sticky (or cohesive) ends, which are single-stranded overhangs that can facilitate the ligation of DNA fragments during cloning experiments.

Base calling is a critical step in the process of DNA sequencing that involves identifying the sequence of nucleotides (the building blocks of DNA) from the raw data generated by sequencing machines. After sequencing, the resulting data usually consists of signals, such as fluorescence or electrical signals, depending on the sequencing technology used. Base calling translates these signals into a sequence of bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine, represented by the letters A, T, C, and G).

BglII is a type II restriction enzyme that is commonly used in molecular biology. It is derived from the bacterium *Bacillus globigii*. BglII recognizes and cleaves specific DNA sequences, which is a crucial function in genetic engineering, cloning, and various molecular biology applications.

Biliprotein is a type of protein that contains bilins as chromophores. Bilins are linear tetrapyrrole compounds that derive from the breakdown of heme, which is a component of hemoglobin and other heme-containing proteins. Biliproteins are found in various organisms, particularly in photosynthetic prokaryotes like cyanobacteria and certain algae.

BioModels is an online repository and database that provides access to computational models of biological systems. The purpose of BioModels is to facilitate the sharing, exchange, and reproducibility of models within the systems biology community. The repository contains a diverse range of models, which can represent various biological processes, including metabolic pathways, signaling networks, and regulatory mechanisms.

Biochemistry is the branch of science that explores the chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms. It combines principles from both biology and chemistry to understand the molecular mechanisms of life. Biochemists study the structure, function, and interactions of biological molecules such as proteins, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), carbohydrates, and lipids. Key areas of study within biochemistry include: 1. **Metabolism**: The biochemical pathways that convert nutrients into energy and the building blocks for cellular structures.

A biochip is a miniature device that can perform a variety of biological analyses and testing, often integrated with microfluidics, miniaturized sensors, and biochemical assays. Biochips are used in biotechnology and medical applications for tasks such as: 1. **DNA Analysis**: Biochips can be used for genomic studies, including DNA sequencing and genotyping. They can carry thousands of DNA probes, allowing for the simultaneous analysis of multiple genetic markers.

Biodistribution refers to the distribution of substances, such as drugs, nutrients, or other compounds, within biological organisms. It typically involves studying how these substances spread through various tissues and organs after administration, influencing their effectiveness and safety. Biodistribution studies are essential in pharmacology and drug development, as they help researchers determine: 1. **Absorption**: How a substance enters the bloodstream.

A biological pathway refers to a series of chemical reactions and interactions that occur within a biological system, typically involving molecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. These pathways are fundamental to the functioning of cells and organisms, as they dictate how biological processes are carried out. Biological pathways can be broadly classified into several categories, including: 1. **Metabolic Pathways**: These involve the conversion of substrates into products through a series of enzymatic reactions.

Biopolymers are naturally occurring polymers that are produced by living organisms. They are made up of repeating units called monomers, which are linked together through covalent bonds. Biopolymers can be categorized into three main types: 1. **Proteins**: Composed of amino acid monomers, proteins serve various functions in living organisms, including structural roles (e.g., collagen in connective tissues), enzymatic activity (catalyzing biochemical reactions), and signaling (e.g.

A biotransducer is a device that converts biological signals into electrical signals, or vice versa, often used in the context of biosensors and biotechnology applications. These devices can detect and measure biological substances or changes in biological systems by translating the biochemical interactions into a measurable electrical output. Biotransducers typically consist of a biological recognition element (such as enzymes, antibodies, or nucleic acids) and a transducer component that converts the biochemical event into an electrical signal.

Bisulfite sequencing is a method used to determine the methylation status of DNA, particularly focusing on the conversion of cytosine residues in DNA. This technique exploits the unique properties of sodium bisulfite, which converts unmethylated cytosines into uracils (which are subsequently treated as thymidines during PCR amplification), while leaving methylated cytosines unchanged.

In biology, "blot" typically refers to a molecular biology technique used to detect and analyze the presence of specific molecules, such as DNA, RNA, or proteins, in a sample. The term "blotting" is associated with several specific techniques: 1. **Southern Blot**: A method used to detect specific DNA sequences in DNA samples.

A blotting matrix, often referred to in the context of molecular biology and biochemistry, is a tool used in techniques such as blotting (e.g., Southern blot, Northern blot, or Western blot) to support the transfer of biomolecules like DNA, RNA, or proteins from a gel to a membrane. The matrix typically consists of materials that provide a solid surface for the biomolecules while allowing for effective binding and detection.

The "bomb pulse" refers to the increased levels of radiocarbon (^14C) in the atmosphere resulting from nuclear bomb tests conducted during the Cold War, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s. When thermonuclear weapons are detonated, they produce large amounts of neutrons, which interact with nitrogen in the atmosphere, converting stable nitrogen (^14N) into radioactive carbon (^14C).

The Boom method, often referenced in finance and investment contexts, is also known as the "BOOM" strategy, which stands for: 1. **B**uy: Identifying undervalued assets or opportunities in the market to purchase. 2. **O**wn: Holding onto these investments for the long term, allowing them to appreciate in value. 3. **O**ptimize: Making adjustments or rebalancing the portfolio based on market changes or personal financial goals.

BpsA, also known as biofilm polysaccharide A, is a polysaccharide that is produced by certain bacteria, particularly Pseudomonas aeruginosa. It is part of the extracellular matrix that contributes to the biofilm formation by these bacteria. Biofilms are complex communities of microorganisms that adhere to surfaces and are surrounded by a self-produced protective matrix, which can include polysaccharides, proteins, and other materials.

As of my last update in October 2023, there is no widely recognized term or acronym "BpuJI" that I can provide information on. It might be a niche term, a new development after my training cut-off, or a specific reference to something less commonly known.

Brain-specific homeobox (Bsx) is a gene that encodes a transcription factor involved in the development and function of the brain. Transcription factors are proteins that help regulate the expression of other genes, playing crucial roles in various biological processes, including development, differentiation, and metabolism. The Bsx gene is particularly notable for its role in the development of certain neuronal populations and in the regulation of various brain functions.

Bridged nucleic acids (BNAs) are a class of modified nucleic acids that feature a bridged structure, which typically consists of a linkage between the 2' and 4' positions of the ribose sugar in RNA or the corresponding positions in DNA. These modifications enhance the stability of the nucleic acid strands against nucleases and contribute to increased binding affinity with complementary strands.

Broadly neutralizing HIV-1 antibodies (bnAbs) are a specific class of antibodies that have the ability to neutralize a wide variety of HIV-1 strains. Unlike typical antibodies that may only target a single strain of a virus, bnAbs can recognize and bind to conserved regions of the virus that do not vary much across different HIV-1 variants. This broad reactivity makes them particularly valuable for HIV research and potential therapeutic interventions.

Btk-type zinc fingers are a specific type of zinc finger motif that are commonly found in various proteins, especially in the context of developmental biology and the regulation of gene expression. The term "Btk" refers to Bruton's tyrosine kinase, an enzyme important in the signaling pathways of B cells, and this type of zinc finger is named after it due to its identification in proteins associated with cellular signaling.

C-myc mRNA refers to the messenger RNA (mRNA) that is transcribed from the c-myc gene, which is an important oncogene involved in cell cycle regulation, apoptosis, and cellular metabolism. The c-myc gene encodes a transcription factor that plays a critical role in promoting cell proliferation and growth. C-myc is often turned on inappropriately in various cancers, leading to increased expression of its target genes which can contribute to uncontrolled cell division and tumorigenesis.

CCR4-Not is a multi-protein complex that plays a crucial role in various cellular processes related to gene regulation, mRNA metabolism, and RNA decay. The name "CCR4-Not" derives from its two main components: the CCR4 deadenylase complex and the Not complex. 1. **CCR4 Complex**: This component primarily functions in the deadenylation of mRNA.

CD133, also known as Prominin-1, is a glycoprotein that is encoded by the PROM1 gene in humans. It is commonly used as a marker for identifying stem cells, particularly in hematopoietic (blood) and neural tissues. CD133 is a pentaspan membrane protein, which means it spans the cell membrane five times, and it is known to play a role in cell signaling and maintaining the stem cell phenotype.

CD90, also known as Thymocyte Differentiation Antigen 1 (Thy-1), is a cell surface glycoprotein that is primarily expressed on T cells, but it can also be found on neurons, fibroblasts, and several other cell types. It is involved in a variety of biological processes, including cell adhesion, signaling, and immune response regulation.

A cDNA library is a collection of complementary DNA (cDNA) sequences that are synthesized from messenger RNA (mRNA) transcripts. The process of creating a cDNA library involves several key steps: 1. **Isolation of mRNA**: The first step is to extract mRNA from the cells or tissues of interest. This mRNA represents the genes that are expressed in those specific cells or conditions.

COLD-PCR, or Co-amplification at Lower Denaturation temperature-PCR, is a molecular biology technique that enhances the detection of rare DNA mutations in a sample by increasing the specificity of the amplification process. It allows for the preferential amplification of mutated sequences over wild-type sequences during polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The key features of COLD-PCR include: 1. **Lower Denaturation Temperature**: COLD-PCR is performed at a lower denaturation temperature than conventional PCR.

CRISPR, which stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, is a revolutionary technology in genetics that allows for precise editing of DNA within living organisms. It was originally discovered as a part of the immune system in certain bacteria, which use CRISPR to defend against viruses by storing segments of viral DNA and using them to recognize and cut the same virus during subsequent infections.

A calibration curve is a graphical representation that shows the relationship between the measured values of a variable (such as concentration, intensity, etc.) and the corresponding true values for those measurements. It is commonly used in analytical chemistry, biomedical studies, and various fields that require quantitative analysis.

Cap Analysis of Gene Expression (CAGE) is a method used in molecular biology to study gene expression at the level of transcription. It primarily focuses on identifying and quantifying the transcription start sites (TSS) of genes, allowing researchers to understand where and how genes are being activated in different cell types or under various conditions. Here’s a brief overview of the CAGE process: 1. **Sample Preparation**: Cells or tissues of interest are collected, and RNA is extracted.

Capillary electrochromatography (CEC) is a hybrid analytical technique that combines aspects of capillary electrophoresis (CE) and liquid chromatography (LC). It involves the separation of analytes based on their charge and size, using electroosmotic flow in a narrow capillary filled with a stationary phase (such as a packed column or a coated capillary wall).

Carlos F. Barbas III is a prominent scientist known for his work in the fields of biochemistry and synthetic biology. He is particularly recognized for his contributions to the development of techniques for protein engineering and directed evolution. Barbas has been involved in research that focuses on the design and optimization of proteins and enzymes for various applications, including biotechnology and medicine. He has published numerous papers and holds patents related to his research.

The catalytic triad is a well-known structural motif found in the active sites of certain enzymes, particularly serine proteases. It consists of three specific amino acid residues that work together to facilitate the enzyme's catalytic activity. The classic catalytic triad includes: 1. **Serine (Ser or S)** - Often the key nucleophile in the reaction, which participates in the formation of a transient enzyme-substrate complex.

Cathepsin zymography is a laboratory technique used to visualize and analyze the activity of cathepsins, which are a family of cysteine proteases, in biological samples. Cathepsins are involved in various physiological processes, including protein degradation, antigen processing, and apoptosis, and they have been implicated in several diseases, such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders.

Cell-free protein arrays (CFPAs) are an innovative technology used in protein research that enable the rapid and high-throughput production and screening of proteins. Unlike traditional methods that require living cells for protein synthesis, cell-free systems utilize extracts from cells (often reticulocyte lysates or bacterial extracts) that contain all the necessary components for protein translation.

Cell biology, also known as cytology, is the branch of biology that studies the structure, function, and behavior of cells, which are the fundamental units of life. It encompasses various aspects, including: 1. **Cell Structure**: Understanding the various components of cells, such as the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and cellular membranes.

Cell engineering is a multidisciplinary field that focuses on the design, manipulation, and optimization of cells for various applications, particularly in biotechnology, medicine, and synthetic biology. It encompasses a range of techniques and approaches aimed at modifying cellular functions, behaviors, and characteristics to achieve specific goals. Key areas within cell engineering include: 1. **Genetic Engineering:** Techniques such as CRISPR-Cas9 and recombinant DNA technology are used to modify the genetic material of cells.

Cellosaurus is a comprehensive and curated knowledge database that focuses on cell lines, which are cultures of cells used in biological research. It provides information about various cell lines, including their origin, characteristics, history, and applications in research, as well as any associated publications. This resource is valuable for researchers in fields such as cancer biology, drug discovery, and genetics, as it helps them identify and understand the specific cell lines they may be using in their studies.

Cellular noise refers to the background noise that is present within a cellular system, affecting the quality of communication and data transmission. In the context of mobile telecommunications and cellular networks, noise can originate from various sources, including: 1. **Thermal Noise**: Generated by the random motion of electrons in electronic components, thermal noise is inherent in all electronic devices and can limit the performance of receivers in cellular phones and base stations.

Cell–cell fusogens are proteins or molecules that promote the fusion of two adjacent cells, allowing their membranes to merge and ultimately leading to the formation of a single cell or a multinucleated structure. This process is crucial for various biological functions, including tissue development, immune responses, and viral infections. Fusogens can be found in many organisms, including viruses, where they play a key role in facilitating the entry of viral particles into host cells.

Cell–cell interaction refers to the various ways in which cells communicate, interact, and influence each other's behavior within a tissue or organism. These interactions are crucial for a wide range of biological processes, including development, immune responses, tissue repair, and homeostasis. There are several key mechanisms through which cell–cell interactions occur: 1. **Direct Contact**: Cells can interact through direct physical contact, where proteins on the surface of one cell bind to receptors on another.