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An elliptic cone is a real quadric surface consisting of the two nappes $u=\pm \sqrt{(b{v}^2+c{w}^2)/a}$, joined at the vertex. Its intersections with planes $u=u_0\ne 0$ are ellipses. It is the zero level of an indefinite quadratic form of signature $(1,2)$. Changing the level to a positive value produces a two-sheeted hyperboloid; changing it to a negative value produces a one-sheet hyperboloid, when the positive coefficient is assigned to the axial coordinate $u$.

After an orthogonal diagonalization, the sign of the third coefficient classifies the displayed quadric surface. If $C>0$, it is an ellipsoid with semiaxes $A^{-1/2},B^{-1/2},C^{-1/2}$. If $C=0$, it is an elliptic cylinder parallel to the $w$ axis, with elliptical transverse section. If $C<0$, it is a one-sheet hyperboloid with axis $w$ and waist ellipse $A{u}^2+B{v}^2=1$. The continuous limit $C\to 0$ sends the associated axial length scale to infinity. Repeated positive eigenvalues make the corresponding principal-axis choices nonunique within their eigenspace, without changing the surface.

For $a,b>0$, an elliptic cylinder is a quadric surface with the displayed equation in suitable Cartesian coordinates, independent of the third coordinate. It is formed by translating an ellipse parallel to a line perpendicular to its plane. The generator direction is the zero-eigenvalue direction of its quadratic part, while the transverse semiaxes are $a,b$. It is circular if $a=b$.

For $a,b>0$, this quadric surface is independent of its third coordinate and is formed by translating a hyperbola along that direction. Its two connected components correspond to $u\ge a$ and $u\le -a$. In elliptic cylindrical coordinates, fixing a generic angular coordinate selects a half-branch of such a cylinder because the signs of both planar coordinates are fixed by that angular value.

For a real symmetric matrix $A$, every stationary squared distance $x^{T}x$ on $x^{T}Ax=1$ occurs in a positive-eigenvalue eigenspace. The Lagrange multiplier equation is $x=\Lambda Ax$; multiplying by $x^T$ gives $\Lambda =|x{|}^2>0$, hence $Ax=|x{|}^{-2}x$. If $A$ is a positive-definite matrix, the nearest and farthest squared distances are $1/{\lambda }_{\max }$ and $1/{\lambda }_{\min }$. With a repeated eigenvalue, the stationary set may contain an entire sphere within its eigenspace. For an indefinite or singular form the surface may be unbounded, and a stationary point need not be a global extremum.

A quadratic dependence on a variable is described by a quadratic function of that variable. State the variable and which other quantities are held fixed.

For an isolated weakly damped resonator mode, $Q=\omega E/P_{\mathrm{loss}}$. If $E(t)=E(0)e^{-t/{\tau }_E}$, differentiating gives $P_{\mathrm{loss}}=E/{\tau }_E$, so $Q=\omega {\tau }_E$. Since energy is quadratic in wave amplitude, the wave amplitude exponential relaxation time is ${\tau }_A=2{\tau }_E$. A decay by an energy factor $D$ in a measured interval $t_d$ gives $Q=\omega t_d/\ln D$. For a conventional reverberation time, $Q=2\pi f{T}_{60}/[6\ln (10)]$ under this exponential single-rate approximation.

In $d{s}^2=(\alpha x{)}^{2}d{t}^2-d{x}^2$, a constant-$x_0>0$ observer has $t=c\tau /(\alpha x_0)$. The nonzero Christoffel symbols are ${\Gamma }^t{}_{tx}={\Gamma }^t{}_{xt}=1/x$ and ${\Gamma }^x{}_{tt}={\alpha }^{2}x$. Its covariant acceleration components are $a^t=0$, $a^x=c^2/x_0$, with invariant magnitude $c^2/x_0$. This is constant proper acceleration, not a covariantly constant four-vector. In inertial coordinates the worldline is the hyperbola $X^2-c^2{T}^2=x_0^2$.

In a Cartesian inertial frame, let $\mathbf{v}$ and $\mathbf{a}=d\mathbf{v}/dt$ be the coordinate velocity and acceleration of a massive particle. With $\gamma =(1-v^2/c^2{)}^{-1/2}$, differentiating its four-velocity givesIn the $+---$ metric signature, its invariant Minkowski norm is $A^{\mu }{A}_{\mu }=-{\alpha }^2$. Expanding that contraction gives the displayed proper acceleration. Resolving the coordinate acceleration into components parallel and perpendicular to $\mathbf{v}$ yields the equivalent formula ${\alpha }^2={\gamma }^6{a}_{\parallel }^2+{\gamma }^4{a}_{\perp }^2$. In particular, constant coordinate acceleration and constant proper acceleration are different prescriptions.

For focal distance $a>0$, $\xi \ge 0$ and $0\le \theta \le \pi$, the displayed prolate spheroidal coordinates are orthogonal coordinates. The three coordinate tangent vectors have lengths $h_{\xi }=h_{\theta }=a\sqrt{{\sinh }^2\xi +{\sin }^2\theta }$ and $h_{\varphi }=a\sinh \xi \sin \theta$. Their product gives the Jacobian determinant $a^3({\sinh }^2\xi +{\sin }^2\theta )\sinh \xi \sin \theta$. A positive constant $\xi$ gives a prolate spheroid with equatorial semiaxis $a\sinh \xi$, polar semiaxis $a\cosh \xi$, and foci $(0,0,\pm a)$. The surface degenerates to the focal segment at $\xi =0$; this coordinate degeneracy is distinct from a singularity of the surrounding Euclidean space.

A probability distribution assigns total probability one to its sample space. For a nonnegative probability density function this means that its integral over the full domain equals one; for a probability mass function the sum of its masses equals one. A nonnegative integrable function with positive finite integral can be divided by that integral to normalize it. A negative function cannot be a probability density function even if a formal manipulation purports to normalize it.

The radial probability density $P(r)$ is defined so that $P(r)dr$ is the probability of finding a particle between radii $r$ and $r+dr$. The spherical volume element gives $P(r)=r^2\int |\psi (r,\Omega ){|}^{2}d\Omega$. For a spherically symmetric wavefunction, $P(r)=4\pi r^2|\psi (r){|}^2$; for $\psi =R(r)Y_l^m(\Omega )$ with normalized spherical harmonics, $P(r)=r^2|R(r){|}^2$. Its maximum need not coincide with the maximum of the density per unit volume: a hydrogenic $1s$ state has its largest spatial density at the origin but its most probable radius at $a_0/Z$.

A pressure measurement determines pressure relative to a specified reference using an instrument such as a manometer or pressure transducer. Gauge pressure, absolute pressure and differential pressure require different references; measurement calibration and measurement uncertainty determine how the reading can be interpreted.

The time for a precessing orientation to turn through $2\pi$. An unlabelled line is unchanged by a $\pi$ turn, so its visible pattern can repeat after half the full precession period.

A region of lower potential energy surrounded by higher potential energy; a particle must gain sufficient energy to escape classically.

A quadratic potential energy about a stable equilibrium. In one dimension $k>0$ is the restoring stiffness and the force is $-dV/dx=-kx$. A mass $m$ undergoing undamped motion has angular frequency $\sqrt{k/m}$. A smooth potential with a nondegenerate local minimum is approximately harmonic for sufficiently small displacements; higher-order terms describe departures from simple harmonic motion.

A polymer globule is a compact conformation favored by effective segment attractions in a poor solvent. If its internal segment density is independent of chain length, its volume is proportional to $N$ and a size measure scales as $N^{1/3}$. The proportionality between physical volume and the cube of a radius of gyration depends on shape and density profile. Compactness alone supplies scaling, not a uniquely determined numerical monomer volume.

For a symmetric self-gravitating slab with polytropic equation of state $p=K{\rho }^2$ and constant $K>0$, hydrostatic equilibrium gives $2K{\rho }^{\prime }=-{\psi }^{\prime }$. The plane-parallel Poisson equation for Newtonian gravity then yields ${\rho }^{\prime \prime }+(2\pi G/K)\rho =0$. Reflection symmetry at the midplane fixes the title profile. For a vacuum surface, retain the nonnegative profile only on $|z|\le z_s=\pi /(2k)$ and put $\rho =0$ outside. The half-thickness is independent of central density in this ideal index-one model, while the surface mass density is $\Sigma =2{\rho }_c/k$.

A polynomial factor of each of two specified polynomials. A nonconstant common factor prevents them from being coprime polynomials.

An octahedron is a polyhedron with eight faces. The regular octahedron has six vertices, twelve equal edges and eight equilateral triangular faces. One realization has vertices $\pm {\mathbf{e}}_1,\pm {\mathbf{e}}_2,\pm {\mathbf{e}}_3$; two vertices are adjacent exactly when they are not an opposite pair. Its edge graph is the octahedral graph.