String theory

String theory replaces point particles by one-dimensional objects whose histories are two-dimensional worldsheets.

An S-duality relates descriptions at different coupling strengths. In type IIB superstring theory, $SL(2,\mathbb{Z})$ acts on the axion-dilaton and string charge doublets.

An NS5-brane has five spatial dimensions and is magnetically charged under the Neveu–Schwarz two-form. Its string-frame brane tension scales as $g_s^{-2}$.

A fundamental string is the perturbative string of a string-theory description. Its string tension is the displayed expression in the string metric. It couples to the Neveu–Schwarz two-form.

If a density of states has high-energy growth proportional to a power of energy times $e^{{\beta }_{H}E}$, its canonical Boltzmann sum fails for $\beta <{\beta }_H$. The Hagedorn temperature is the corresponding threshold. The open bosonic string mass spectrum and large-level degeneracy of an open bosonic string give ${\beta }_H=4\pi \sqrt{{\alpha }^{\prime }}$ in units with Boltzmann's constant, the speed of light and Planck's constant set to one. Polynomial prefactors affect behavior at the threshold itself; the growth alone does not distinguish a limiting temperature from a phase transition.

Euclidean finite temperature compactifies time to a circle of radius $R_{\beta }=\beta /(2\pi )$. The string oscillator ground states with zero momentum number and winding $w=\pm 1$ have the displayed mass from the bosonic string mass spectrum. They become massless at ${\beta }_H=4\pi \sqrt{{\alpha }^{\prime }}$ and tachyonic at higher temperature. This thermal winding mode diagnoses breakdown of the perturbative low-temperature string gas at the Hagedorn temperature. The endpoint and order of a transition require interactions and a suitable stable vacuum; the ordinary zero-winding bosonic tachyon is already unstable independently of this thermal threshold.

For a critical closed bosonic string in 25 noncompact spatial dimensions, the smoothed string oscillator rest-mass density behaves as $\rho (M)\sim C{M}^{-26}{e}^{{\beta }_{H}M}$, with ${\beta }_H=4\pi \sqrt{{\alpha }^{\prime }}$. At large $M$, the centre-of-mass momentum integral of $e^{-\beta \sqrt{M^2+p^2}}$ is asymptotic to $(2\pi M/\beta {)}^{25/2}{e}^{-\beta M}$, up to the convention for phase-space measure. Thus the high-mass tail of the one-string canonical partition function is proportional to ${\int }_{M_0}^{\infty }{M}^{-27/2}{e}^{-(\beta -{\beta }_H)M}dM$. This converges at $\beta ={\beta }_H$ but fails for $\beta <{\beta }_H$. Expanding about the endpoint gives twelve finite derivatives and a nonanalytic term proportional to $(\beta -{\beta }_H{)}^{25/2}$; the thirteenth derivative diverges. Consequently exponential state growth does not imply divergence of the partition function at the threshold itself. The discussion assumes the separate infrared instability of the bosonic tachyon has been regulated and does not claim a stable bosonic thermal vacuum.

A brane is an extended object with $p$ spatial dimensions. Its history is a $(p+1)$-dimensional worldvolume embedded in target spacetime. A point particle has $p=0$, a string has $p=1$, and a membrane has $p=2$. Geometric brane actions depend on the induced worldvolume metric; D-branes also carry open-string endpoint and gauge-field data.

The four-dimensional minimal supersymmetric membrane has embedding coordinates $(X^m,{\theta }^{\alpha })$ with four real odd components. Its area term uses the supertranslation-invariant superspace coframe, and a Wess-Zumino brane coupling integrates a superspace three-form potential with closed four-form curvature. Equal charge magnitude and tension permit kappa symmetry. After worldvolume reparametrization and kappa fixing, one transverse scalar and one three-dimensional Majorana fermion remain. This gives the long-wavelength description of the translation and fermion zero modes of a supersymmetric domain wall; it is distinct from restricting the eleven-dimensional M2-brane to a four-dimensional target.

The four-dimensional membrane Fierz rearrangement identity $(C{\gamma }_{mn}{)}_{(\alpha \beta }(C{\gamma }^n{)}_{\gamma \delta )}=0$ makes the displayed supertranslation-invariant four-form closed. It is locally the exterior derivative of a three-form potential, which can change by an exact form under target supersymmetry. Pulling the potential back to a closed worldvolume gives an invariant Wess-Zumino brane coupling. The charge magnitude and normalization of this form are fixed together by cancellation of the area variation under kappa symmetry.

A relativistic membrane sweeps out a three-dimensional worldvolume with induced worldvolume metric $h_{ij}={\partial }_i{X}^m{\partial }_j{X}^n{\eta }_{mn}$. Its leading geometric action is tension times its invariant volume. In static gauge in four-dimensional spacetime, one transverse field $Y$ gives $h_{ij}={\eta }_{ij}+{\partial }_{i}Y{\partial }_{j}Y$, and the matrix determinant lemma gives $S=-T\int \sqrt{1+{\partial }_{i}Y{\partial }^{i}Y}$. Expanding supplies the translation-zero-mode kinetic term. A domain wall of finite thickness also has higher-curvature corrections outside the long-wavelength limit.

A charged brane couples to an appropriate differential-form gauge potential through its pullback. Under $A\mapsto A+d\Lambda$, a closed worldvolume changes the action by a boundary term, by Stokes theorem. Reversing the brane charge reverses this coupling, which matters in probe-force and supersymmetry calculations.

A $(p+1)$-form gauge potential couples electrically through its pullback to a $(p+1)$-dimensional worldvolume, whose object has $p$ spatial dimensions. Its field strength has degree $p+2$ and its magnetic dual potential has degree $d-p-3$, hence magnetic spatial dimension $d-p-4$. Electric and magnetic fluxes are integrated over linking spheres of dimensions $d-p-2$ and $p+2$, respectively. This dimensional dictionary applies when the indicated objects and dual descriptions exist; top forms need separate treatment and carry no ordinary propagating polarization.

For an oriented brane worldvolume $W$, a gauge transformation $C\mapsto C+d\Lambda$ changes the Wess-Zumino brane coupling by $q{\int }_{\partial W}{X}^{\ast }\Lambda$, by the Generalized Stokes theorem. If the brane boundary lies on a manifold carrying a form $B$ of one lower degree, adding the displayed boundary term and transforming $B\mapsto B-\Lambda$ cancels this variation. The sign uses the induced boundary orientation. A closed worldvolume needs no boundary term; noncompact cases require appropriate support or decay conditions.

For $F=dA$ and an embedding variation $V$, the pullback Lie derivative and Cartan's magic formula give the displayed variation. Consequently the interior force from the Wess-Zumino brane coupling depends only on the gauge-invariant field strength. A change $A\mapsto A+d\Lambda$ changes the action only on the boundary, by the Generalized Stokes theorem; boundaries require the appropriate fixed boundary data or additional boundary coupling.

The brane tension is the energy per unit spatial brane volume and multiplies its geometric action. In units $\hslash =c=1$, a $p$-brane tension has mass dimension $p+1$. The $p=1$ case is the string tension.

The worldvolume is the history of a brane. An embedding $X:\Sigma \to \mathcal{M}$ maps its local coordinates into target spacetime. A string worldvolume is a worldsheet.

An auxiliary worldvolume metric is an independent metric introduced in a brane action, distinct from the induced worldvolume metric. Its algebraic equation can eliminate it. For the Polyakov action of a string, it is determined only up to a Weyl transformation.

The auxiliary-metric brane action is a quadratic embedding action with an independent worldvolume metric. Its embedding equation is ${\partial }_{\mu }(\sqrt{-\gamma }{\gamma }^{\mu \nu }{\partial }_{\nu }{X}^a)=0$. Its metric equation is $h_{\mu \nu }-{\gamma }_{\mu \nu }({\gamma }^{\rho \sigma }{h}_{\rho \sigma }-(p-1))/2=0$. For $p\ne 1$, tracing determines ${\gamma }^{\rho \sigma }{h}_{\rho \sigma }=p+1$ and hence $\gamma =h$; eliminating the auxiliary field gives twice the invariant worldvolume volume, before including the overall brane tension. The Weyl-invariance exception for the string among branes prevents unique elimination at $p=1$.

Under ${\gamma }_{\mu \nu }\mapsto e^{2\omega }{\gamma }_{\mu \nu }$, the quadratic kinetic density of a $p$-brane scales as $e^{(p-1)\omega }$ and its constant density scales as $e^{(p+1)\omega }$. At $p=1$ the first factor is one and the constant term in the auxiliary-metric brane action vanishes. The traced metric equation is then an identity, leaving a Weyl transformation freedom. For $p\ne 1$, the metric equation instead identifies the auxiliary and induced worldvolume metrics.

The induced worldvolume metric is the pullback of the target metric tensor by a brane embedding. For a nondegenerate timelike embedding, $\sqrt{-\det h}$ is its invariant worldvolume volume density. The $p=1$ specialization is the induced worldsheet metric.

An eleven-dimensional nonperturbative framework suggested by superstring dualities, with eleven-dimensional supergravity as its low-energy limit. Type IIA at coupling $g_s$ has an interpretation on a circle of radius $R_{11}=g_s\sqrt{{\alpha }^{\prime }}$, so an additional dimension becomes visible at strong coupling. Perturbative string descriptions represent particular limits of this framework.

M-theory on a K3 surface and the heterotic string on a three-torus have matching seven-dimensional moduli and charge lattices. The K3 intersection lattice supplies twenty-two vector charges; an M5-brane wrapped on K3 becomes the heterotic fundamental string. The strong-coupling interpretation and low-energy matching are derived in section 4.7 of String Theory Dynamics in Various Dimensions.

When appropriate negative-square two-cycles of a K3 surface collapse, wrapped M2-branes become massless. Their intersection pattern is an ADE root diagram, and the massless charged states enlarge the abelian gauge algebra to the corresponding simply laced Lie algebra.

// Target: supersymmetry.bigb

A wrapped M5-brane fixes the heterotic string tension proportional to $V/{\ell }_p^6$. Reduction of the gravitational coupling gives $G_7\propto {\ell }_p^9/V$. Therefore $G_7/{\ell }_{s,H}^5\propto (V/{\ell }_p^4{)}^{3/2}$, yielding the displayed dimensionless coupling relation. This derivation separates the K3 volume modulus from its shape Narain moduli space.

M-theory on a two-torus and type IIB superstring theory on a circle describe the same nine-dimensional physics. Torus shape supplies the axion-dilaton; torus area supplies the circle-radius modulus after matching metrics. An M2-brane on a one-cycle gives a (p,q) string; an M5-brane on the whole torus gives a D3-brane. Matching brane charges and tensions establishes the dictionary in The Power of M Theory.

Compactifying M-theory on a circle gives type IIA superstring theory. The circle radius sets its coupling. Multiplying M2-brane and M5-brane tensions by the circle circumference gives the fundamental string and D4-brane tensions, while unwrapped objects give D2-branes and NS5-branes. Momentum and a Kaluza-Klein monopole supply D0-brane and D6-brane charges. The circle dictionary and worldvolume reductions are developed in Four Lectures on M-theory.

D0-branes are circle momentum states, D2-branes are unwrapped M2-branes, D4-branes are circle-wrapped M5-branes, and D6-branes arise from Kaluza-Klein monopoles with the M-circle as fibre. Wrapped M2-branes give fundamental strings, and unwrapped M5-branes give NS5-branes. The D8-brane is a source for Romans mass and is outside this ordinary massless-circle dictionary. Tension matching uses $R_{11}=g_s{\ell }_s$ and ${\ell }_p^3=g_s{\ell }_s^3$.

An M-brane is a brane in M-theory. Its elementary membrane and five-brane carry electric and magnetic charges for the three-form potential of eleven-dimensional supergravity. Compactification and wrapping relate them to strings and D-branes.

The M5-brane has five spatial dimensions and carries the magnetic charge dual to the M2-brane's electric three-form charge. Wrapping it on a compact cycle lowers its effective spatial dimension and multiplies its brane tension by the cycle volume.

The M2-brane has two spatial dimensions and couples electrically to the supergravity three-form. Its supersymmetric worldvolume description is the supermembrane.

The transverse harmonic function $H$ solves the field equations away from membrane sources. Positive centres contribute $Q_a/|y-y_a{|}^6$ in eight dimensions. Its Killing spinors are $H^{-1/6}{ϵ}_0$ with one oriented membrane projector, giving sixteen supersymmetries. The three-form's sign and membrane orientation must be chosen together.

For $H\sim R^6/r^6$, changing radial coordinate to $z=R^3/(2r^2)$ gives an AdS metric of radius $R/2$ times a round sphere of radius $R$. The Freund-Rubin compactification flux has magnitude $6/R$ in the AdS volume form. This is the regular positive-charge membrane throat, rather than the limit of an arbitrary singular harmonic multipole.

// Target: supersymmetry.bigb

For $F={\mathrm{vol}}_{012}\wedge d{H}^{-1}$ and $F=dA$, choose $A=(1-H^{-1}){\mathrm{vol}}_{012}$. A parallel probe then has $q=-1$ in the supermembrane action, so its induced-volume term $-T_2{H}^{-1}$ and potential term $-T_2(1-H^{-1})$ add to a position-independent constant. This proves the cancellation without a weak-field approximation. An oppositely charged probe has no such cancellation.

The supersymmetric M2-brane worldvolume theory includes embedding bosons and fermions and has kappa symmetry. In eleven dimensions its fermionic embedding coordinate is a thirty-two-component Majorana spinor.

The first term uses the induced worldvolume metric from the supervielbein; the second is the Wess-Zumino brane coupling to the super-three-form. Its fermionic dependence is retained before bosonic truncation. The relative charge magnitude equals the brane tension, while $q=\pm 1$ sets the orientation and matching kappa symmetry projector sign. In an on-shell eleven-dimensional supergravity superspace, this action has kappa symmetry.

A string construction combining worldsheet orientation reversal with a suitable spacetime involution. It projects the spectrum and introduces fixed-locus sources whose charges must be treated together with branes and fluxes. In compactifications, such projections can reduce supersymmetry and modify the gauge and matter spectrum. Charge cancellation is part of consistency.

An unoriented theory containing open and closed superstrings. Consistent gauge and gravitational anomaly cancellation yields the familiar $\mathfrak{so}(32)$ gauge algebra. Open-string Chan-Paton factors supply the gauge degrees of freedom, while closed strings contain gravity. It is related by strong/weak duality to the corresponding heterotic theory.

A string theory combining a bosonic left-moving system with a supersymmetric right-moving system. Ten target coordinates leave sixteen left-moving internal degrees of freedom for gauge currents. Modular consistency allows the familiar gauge algebras ${\mathfrak{e}}_8\oplus {\mathfrak{e}}_8$ and $\mathfrak{so}(32)$. Suitable compactification can produce spacetime supersymmetry and chiral gauge matter.

Compactification of a heterotic string on a Calabi-Yau threefold with a consistent holomorphic vector bundle. Suitable bundle and geometry choices preserve four-dimensional N=1 supersymmetry and generate chiral matter from internal Dirac zero modes. The index controls net chirality. In the standard embedding, the net generation index is half the internal Euler characteristic, up to chirality orientation conventions.

String theories with worldsheet fermionic degrees of freedom and the corresponding supersymmetric consistency conditions. In the RNS string description, consistent supersymmetric GSO projections produce spacetime supersymmetry and remove the NS tachyon. The flat critical dimension is ten. Worldsheet supersymmetry alone does not guarantee spacetime supersymmetry without a suitable projection.

Compactification makes some target spatial dimensions compact and sufficiently small that lower-energy observations see an effective lower-dimensional spacetime. A simple geometry is a product of noncompact spacetime with a compact internal manifold; its momentum and winding sectors influence the effective spectrum. Reaching a four-dimensional model from a critical ten-dimensional superstring requires such additional geometric and field-theoretic data. Worldsheet supersymmetry alone does not choose the compactification or establish a realistic particle spectrum.

A parameter of an internal geometry, gauge background or dilaton configuration that becomes a scalar field in the lower-dimensional theory. A continuously undetermined parameter gives a flat direction and often a massless field. Fluxes and other effects can generate a potential, leading to moduli stabilization. Shape, size and coupling moduli affect low-energy observables.

For a toroidally compactified heterotic string, the torus metric, antisymmetric tensor and gauge Wilson lines determine a positive $d$-plane in a charge space of signature $(d,d+16)$, modulo lattice identifications. The continuous dimension is $d(d+16)$; the coupling is an additional modulus. The three-torus case has fifty-seven shape and Wilson-line parameters.

Generating a potential with an acceptable stable minimum for previously undetermined compactification scalar fields. It can involve fluxes, branes and nonperturbative effects, with supersymmetry and consistency restrictions. A plausible phenomenological model must determine or suitably control these fields rather than leave arbitrary massless scalars and varying couplings.

A compactification with quantized background form-field strengths on internal cycles. Fluxes can generate potentials for moduli of a string compactification and affect supersymmetry and vacuum geometry. They must satisfy field equations, Bianchi identities and global charge constraints; choosing flux integers alone is not a complete consistency proof.

The spinning string adds worldsheet Majorana fermions and local worldsheet supersymmetry to the embedding coordinates. Its gauge-fixed quantum description is the Ramond–Neveu–Schwarz formulation of the superstring.

Before the GSO projection, the Neveu–Schwarz sector has string oscillator levels $0,1/2,1,3/2$, with physical multiplicities $1,8,36,128$ in ten-dimensional light-cone gauge in string theory. The eight transverse worldsheet Majorana fermions supply eight single ${\psi }_{-1/2}$ states. Level one has eight ${\alpha }_{-1}$ states and $\left(\genfrac{}{}{0ex}{}{8}{2}\right)=28$ pairs of distinct ${\psi }_{-1/2}$ modes. Level $3/2$ has $8$ single ${\psi }_{-3/2}$ modes, $8\cdot 8$ mixed boson–fermion modes and $\left(\genfrac{}{}{0ex}{}{8}{3}\right)=56$ triples. Their squared masses are respectively $-1/(2{\alpha }^{\prime }),0,1/(2{\alpha }^{\prime }),1/{\alpha }^{\prime }$. In the Ramond sector, the Ramond zero-mode Clifford algebra gives a sixteen-dimensional ground space. At level one, ${\alpha }_{-1}^i$ and ${\psi }_{-1}^i$ each provide $8\cdot 16$ states, hence multiplicities $16,256$ at squared masses $0,1/{\alpha }^{\prime }$. No half-integer Ramond levels occur. The GSO projection keeps odd NS fermion number and one total Ramond chirality, giving $8$ bosons and $8$ fermions at zero mass, then $128$ of each at the first massive level.

After the GSO projection, the first massive open-string level has NS oscillator number $3/2$ and Ramond oscillator number $1$. Eight transverse directions give $8+64+\left(\genfrac{}{}{0ex}{}{8}{3}\right)=128$ NS states and $8\cdot 8+8\cdot 8=128$ R states. They form the massive Spin(9) representations $44+84$ and a gamma-traceless vector-spinor of dimension $9\cdot 16-16=128$. The identical chiral oscillator count in a closed string has the different mass normalization ${\alpha }^{\prime }{M}^2=4$.

The Gliozzi–Scherk–Olive projection selects consistent worldsheet fermion-number and chirality sectors in an RNS string theory. In suitable supersymmetric choices it removes the tachyonic Neveu–Schwarz sector ground state and keeps a chosen Ramond sector chirality. Together with the consistent sector combinations it produces spacetime fermions and, for theories such as Type II superstring theory, a tachyon-free spectrum. The mere presence of classical worldsheet supersymmetry does not specify this projection or guarantee tachyon removal.

Antiperiodic worldsheet Majorana fermions have half-integer modes in this sector.

The lowest fermionic excitation has level $1/2$. Its old-covariant physical conditions are ${\alpha }^{\prime }{p}^2+1/2-a=0$ and $p\cdot A=0$. For nonzero real momentum, timelike $p$ gives a positive polarization space, null $p$ gives a nonnegative space with a longitudinal null direction, and spacelike $p$ permits a negative-norm time polarization. The limiting $a=1/2$ state is a massless gauge vector after quotienting null polarizations. This level-specific test does not prove positivity of every higher NS level.

The usual half-level NS claim that all physical vector polarizations have nonnegative norm for $a\le 1/2$ assumes nonzero particle momentum. At zero momentum and limiting intercept, all positive-mode constraints and transversality allow a timelike polarization with negative norm, and $A\sim A+\kappa p$ removes nothing. Excluding this exceptional momentum restores the ordinary null-vector argument; retaining it makes the unrestricted elementary criterion strict $a<1/2$.

The open NS action has integer bosonic modes and half-integer fermionic matter modes, together with even Virasoro and odd supercurrent multipliers. Opposite fermion signs at the two endpoints make the doubled fermion antiperiodic and remove a matter zero mode. The $b_r$ matter variables are distinct from the $bc$ reparameterization FP ghosts. Canonical quantization yields $[{\alpha }_k^m,{\alpha }_l^n]=k{\eta }^{mn}{\delta }_{k+l,0}$ and $\{b_r^m,b_s^n\}={\eta }^{mn}{\delta }_{r+s,0}$.

The unprojected level-one states form a transverse vector representation and an exterior square. Fermionic anticommutation makes the two-fermion states antisymmetric. Together they restrict from an antisymmetric rank-two tensor of $SO(D-1)$, not a massive spin-two field.

Before the GSO projection, $N={\sum }_{k>0}{\alpha }_{-k}\cdot {\alpha }_k+{\sum }_{r>0}r{b}_{-r}\cdot b_r$ takes nonnegative half-integer values. The first vector at $N=1/2$ is massless for string intercept $a_{\mathrm{NS}}=1/2$.

Antiperiodic worldsheet Majorana fermions give transverse modes $b_r^I$, $r\in \mathbb{Z}+\frac{1}{2}$, with $\{b_r^I,b_s^J\}={\delta }^{IJ}{\delta }_{r+s,0}$. Positive modes annihilate the oscillator vacuum; negative modes are fermionic creation operators.

Periodic worldsheet Majorana fermions have integer modes and fermionic zero modes in this sector.

A worldsheet operator that changes fermion boundary conditions to the Ramond sector and creates a target spinor state. For $D$ real matter fermions its conformal weight is $D/16$. At $D=10$, combining it with the appropriate superghost factor gives a dimension-one spacetime-supersymmetry current.

In the critical RNS string, a spacetime supersymmetry generator is $Q_A=\oint e^{-{\varphi }_{\mathrm{gh}}/2}{S}_A$. The RNS spin field has weight $5/8$ and the superghost exponential has weight $3/8$, making a weight-one current. The GSO projection ensures the locality needed to act on retained vertex operators. Its operator products generate translations and relate NS sector and R sector states.

The zero-mode anticommutator $\{d_0^I,d_0^J{\}}_{+}={\delta }^{IJ}$ becomes the Euclidean Clifford algebra after ${\gamma }^I=\sqrt{2}{d}_0^I$. It acts within the oscillator-vacuum space. Eight transverse Gamma matrices give a minimal complex representation of dimension sixteen, split into two eight-dimensional chirality sectors.

For integer transverse string modes, $N_R={\sum }_{k>0}({\alpha }_{-k}\cdot {\alpha }_k+k{d}_{-k}\cdot d_k)$ with vacuum-annihilating normal ordering. Each nonzero-mode creation operator raises the level by $k$; fermionic zero modes commute with it. The open-string mass condition is $M^2=2\pi T{N}_R$, with zero Ramond intercept.

Local supersymmetry on a string worldsheet relates embedding coordinates to their worldsheet Majorana fermion partners. Fixing this fermionic gauge symmetry introduces commuting superconformal ghosts.

For $\delta X=-\overline{ϵ}\psi$ and $\delta \psi ={\rho }^{\alpha }{\partial }_{\alpha }Xϵ$, with constant Grassmann-odd Majorana parameters, the commutator on $X$ is the displayed translation. Set $M={ϵ}_1{\overline{ϵ}}_2-{ϵ}_2{\overline{ϵ}}_1$. In two dimensions $\{{\rho }^{\alpha },M\}=2{\overline{ϵ}}_1{\rho }^{\alpha }{ϵ}_2$ times the identity, so the fermion commutator is the translation minus $M{\rho }^{\alpha }{\partial }_{\alpha }\psi$. The remainder vanishes on the fermion field equation. This distinguishes on-shell closure from the off-shell total-derivative invariance of the action.

The local gauge choice $h_{\mu \nu }=e^{2\omega }{\eta }_{\mu \nu }$ and ${\chi }_{\mu }=0$ for an RNS string. Diffeomorphisms and Weyl symmetry fix the metric, while local supersymmetry and super-Weyl symmetry fix the gravitino. Stress-tensor and supercurrent constraints survive the gauge choice and eliminate longitudinal degrees of freedom. Higher-genus surfaces retain metric and spin-structure moduli.