Atomic nucleus ( $A = Z + N$ )

The central system of protons and neutrons in an atom. Its mass number

A

is its baryon number in ordinary nuclear states;

Z

is the proton number and

N

the neutron number.

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Alpha particle ( $A = 4, Z = 2, J = I = 0$ )

The helium-four atomic nucleus, containing two protons and two neutrons. Its ground-state spin and isospin are zero. A quantized cubic four-Skyrmion supplies a corresponding nuclear state in the soliton description.

Deuteron ( $A = 2, J = 1, I = 0$ )

The bound atomic nucleus containing one proton and one neutron. Its ground-state spin is one and its isospin is zero. The appropriately quantized toroidal two-Skyrmion models these quantum numbers.

Nuclear binding energy ( $E_{bind} = (Z m_{p} + N m_{n} - M_{A}) c^{2}$ )

The positive energy needed to separate a bound atomic nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons. It is the mass defect times

c^{2}

. In a Skyrmion model of a nucleus, both separated nucleon masses and the multi-soliton state require a consistent quantization and calibration.

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Atomic nucleus by

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The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region at the center of an atom that contains most of the atom's mass. It is composed of two types of subatomic particles: protons and neutrons. - **Protons** are positively charged particles, and their number determines the atomic number of an element, which defines the element itself (e.g., hydrogen has one proton, while carbon has six). - **Neutrons** are neutral particles, meaning they have no charge.

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Atomic nucleus by

Ciro Santilli  40 Updated 2025-07-16

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