Representation theory

A subrepresentation is an invariant subspace of a group representation or Lie algebra representation, with the restricted action.

For a subrepresentation $W\subseteq V$, the quotient vector space $V/W$ inherits the action. For a Lie algebra representation, the formula is $x(v+W)=xv+W$, well-defined because $W$ is invariant.

A group representation is a group homomorphism from a group to the general linear group of a vector space. It realizes abstract group elements as invertible linear transformations.

A Galois representation is a continuous group representation of an absolute Galois group, usually on a vector space or lattice over a local field. Examples include the cyclotomic character and the representations attached to modular forms. The coefficient topology is part of the definition.

A Galois character is a continuous one-dimensional Galois representation: the absolute Galois group acts by multiplication by a scalar in a coefficient field $F$. A quadratic character over a coefficient field of characteristic different from two has values in $\{1,-1\}$; after identifying this group with $\mathbb{Z}/2\mathbb{Z}$, its kernel fixes a quadratic extension, or the base field for the trivial character. Its restriction to an inertia group is trivial exactly when that extension is unramified at the corresponding place.

The cyclotomic character is defined by $g(\zeta )={\zeta }^{\kappa (g)}$ on compatible $p$-power roots of unity. On the full cyclotomic tower of $\mathbb{Q}$, it identifies the Galois group with ${\mathbb{Z}}_p^{\times }$. Its finite-order part is the Teichmüller character and its pro-$p$ part acts through $1+p{\mathbb{Z}}_p$, or $1+4{\mathbb{Z}}_2$.

The Tate twist $M(1)$ multiplies a Galois representation's action by the cyclotomic character. Here ${\mathbb{Z}}_p(1)$ is the inverse limit of $p$-power roots of unity under power maps. For a one-variable Iwasawa module, twisting changes characteristic power series by the corresponding change in the generator's action.

Invariant theory studies functions and tensors unchanged by a group action. For a linear representation, the polynomial invariant ring records invariant polynomial functions on the representation space. Tensor invariants and commuting algebra actions connect it with Schur–Weyl duality.

For a group acting linearly on $W$, act on the coordinate ring by $(g\cdot f)(w)=f(g^{-1}w)$. The polynomial invariant ring is the fixed subalgebra $\mathbb{C}[W{]}^G$. It inherits the degree grading. Even over the complex numbers it need not be a unique factorization domain, as the quadratic cone invariant ring demonstrates.

Let $\zeta =e^{\pi i/n}$ and let the binary dihedral group act on ${\mathbb{C}}^2$ by $(x,y)\mapsto (\zeta x,{\zeta }^{-1}y)$ and $(x,y)\mapsto (-y,x)$. For $n\ge 2$, the invariantspresent the invariant ring as $\mathbb{C}[U,V,W]/(W^2-V{U}^2+4V^{n+1})$. First take the cyclic invariants $A=x^{2n},B=y^{2n},C=xy$ with $AB=C^{2n}$. The residual involution interchanges $A,B$ and negates $C$, so invariant normal forms are polynomials in $A+B,C^2$ plus $C(A-B)$ times such polynomials. For $n=3$ the group has order twelve and the equation is $W^2-V{U}^2+4V^4=0$.

The scalar sign action of a cyclic group of order two on ${\mathbb{C}}^2$ has invariant ring $\mathbb{C}[X^2,XY,Y^2]\cong \mathbb{C}[a,b,c]/(ac-b^2)$. It is not factorial: $a,b,c$ are pairwise nonassociate irreducibles, since every nonconstant invariant has degree at least two, while $ac=b^2$ gives two distinct factorizations.

If a finite group has no nontrivial homomorphism to ${\mathbb{C}}^{\times }$, its polynomial invariant ring is a unique factorization domain. Factor an invariant in the ambient polynomial ring and collect its irreducible factors into orbit products. Each orbit product transforms by a linear character, hence is invariant. It is prime in the invariant ring, and the invariant factorization is a product of these primes.

A finite group permutes the associate classes of irreducible polynomial factors of an invariant. The product of one representative from each orbit transforms by a scalar character of the group. If that character is trivial, the product is invariant. Its transitive factor orbit makes it prime in the invariant ring: an invariant polynomial divisible by one orbit factor is divisible by all of them.

For the permutation action on $n$ coordinates with $n\ge 2$, every alternating-group invariant is a symmetric polynomial plus the Vandermonde product $\Delta$ times a symmetric polynomial. Thus the invariant ring is $\mathbb{C}[e_1,\dots ,e_n,Z]/(Z^2-D(e_1,\dots ,e_n))$, where $D$ is the discriminant polynomial. The two summands are independent over the symmetric polynomial ring.

For a group representation of $G$ and a subgroup $H$, restriction keeps the vector space and lets only the elements of $H$ act. It is denoted ${\mathrm{Res}}_H^{G}V$.

The regular group representation of a finite group over the complex numbers contains each irreducible representation with multiplicity equal to its dimension. Consequently the sum of the squared dimensions is the group order. Once a list of distinct irreducibles exhausts this sum, it is complete.

An intertwiner between group representations $\rho$ on $V$ and $\sigma$ on $W$ is a linear map $A:V\to W$ satisfying $A\rho (x)=\sigma (x)A$ for every group element. The Schur lemma controls these maps between irreducible representations.

A matrix coefficient of a finite-dimensional group representation is a scalar function obtained by applying a linear functional to the translate of a fixed vector. In a chosen basis these functions include $x\mapsto \rho (x{)}_{ij}$. For a finite group, the Schur orthogonality relations make the scaled coefficients of all inequivalent unitary irreducible representations an orthonormal basis of its scalar functions.

For inequivalent chosen unitary irreducible representations of a finite group, uniform expectation givesThe Kronecker deltas in the first case refer to entries in the same chosen basis. Averaging an intertwiner and applying the Schur lemma proves the formula; summing diagonal entries gives character orthogonality.

For chosen inequivalent unitary irreducible representations $\rho ,\sigma$ of a finite group and a $d_{\rho }\times d_{\sigma }$ matrix $M$, the average ${\mathbb{E}}_x\rho (x)M\sigma (x{)}^{\ast }$ is zero when $\rho \ne \sigma$. For $\rho =\sigma$, it is $(\mathrm{tr}M/d_{\rho })I$. This follows from the Schur lemma, since the average intertwines the two group representations. Equivalent representations in different bases require the corresponding intertwiner; the identity-matrix formula assumes literally the same representative.

A vector $v$ is cyclic for a group representation $\rho :G\to GL(V)$ if the linear span of $\{\rho (g)v:g\in G\}$ is all of $V$. Equivalently $v$ generates $V$ as a module over the group algebra. Its projection to the invariant subspace generates that subspace, so a cyclic representation of a finite group has at most one copy of the trivial representation.

In a unitary representation of a finite group, if a cyclic vector $v$ satisfies $\rho (g)v=av$ for some $a\ne 1$, then there are no invariant vectors. Indeed the averaging orthogonal projection $P=|G{|}^{-1}{\sum }_h\rho (h)$ satisfies $P\rho (g)=P$, so $Pv=aPv=0$. All translates of $v$ also project to zero, and they span the representation.

Restriction of an irreducible representation to a subgroup is multiplicity-free when its semisimple representation decomposition has no repeated irreducible summands. Over the complex numbers, for finite groups, this is equivalent to the restricted module's endomorphism algebra being commutative. This follows by writing that algebra as a product of matrix algebras of sizes equal to the multiplicities.

A pseudoreal complex representation is isomorphic to its conjugate but has an invariant antilinear map squaring to minus the identity. Such group representations admit antisymmetric invariant bilinear forms and can support half-hypermultiplets in four-dimensional extended supersymmetry.

A field $k$ is a splitting field for a finite group $G$ if every simple module over its group algebra $kG$ is absolutely simple: it remains simple over every extension field. Equivalently, the quotient by the Jacobson radical is a product of full matrix algebras over $k$. In characteristic $p$, containing all $m$th roots of unity, where $|G|=p^{a}m$ and $p\nmid m$, is sufficient. This is the modular splitting-field theorem; it is substantially stronger than merely having eigenvalues for one chosen group element.

For representations $V$ and $W$ of a group $G$, the tensor product representation is the tensor product $V\otimes W$ with diagonal action

A $(j,k)$ tensor has one fundamental representation factor for every upper index and a dual factor for every lower index. Under $A\in SU(n)$, upper factors transform by $A$ and lower factors by $A^{-1}$; unitarity identifies the latter with conjugate fundamental matrices. Thus complex conjugation exchanges $(j,k)$ and $(k,j)$. Index permutations and contraction with an invariant tensor commute with the action, producing invariant subspaces and decomposition maps.

An invariant tensor is fixed by every element of the represented group, so it spans or belongs to a trivial group representation. The special unitary group preserves its identity tensor and the upper and lower volume tensors. Such tensors make tensor contraction equivariant and permit invariant inner products and real structures.

The tensor-product weight diagram has six distinct nonzero differences of the three defining weights and a zero weight of multiplicity three. Identify the tensor product with endomorphisms of ${\mathbb{C}}^3$ under conjugation. Its scalar line is a singlet, while the traceless matrices give the irreducible adjoint octet, with two zero weights. The root commutators connect all of the traceless matrix units, proving irreducibility rather than inferring it solely from a drawing.

If $G$ acts on a vector space $W$, it acts on $\mathrm{End}(W)$ by conjugation:Under $\mathrm{End}(W)\cong W\otimes W^{\ast }$, this is the tensor product of group representations $W\otimes W^{\ast }$.

The trivial representation sends every group element to the identity linear map.

A scalar representation is the one-dimensional trivial representation: every group element acts as the identity. Scalar polarization labels are unchanged by the relevant rotation group.

The vector representation is the defining action of a matrix group on the vector space on which its matrices act. For an orthogonal or Lorentz group, it preserves the corresponding symmetric bilinear form.

A matrix representation is a group representation together with a basis, so each group element is represented by an invertible matrix and multiplication is represented by matrix multiplication.

An invariant subspace of a linear map $A:V\to V$ is a vector subspace $W\subseteq V$ satisfying $A(W)\subseteq W$. For a group representation, invariance means $\rho (g)W\subseteq W$ for every represented group element $g$.

A nonzero representation is reducible when it has a nonzero proper invariant subspace; otherwise it is an irreducible representation.

A representation is semisimple when it is a direct sum of irreducible representations. Equivalently, every invariant subspace has an invariant complement.

Every group representation of a finite group over a field whose characteristic does not divide the number of elements of the group is semisimple. Given an invariant subspace, averaging any projection onto it over the group produces an equivariant projection, whose kernel is an invariant complement.

Modular representation theory studies representations of a finite group $G$ over a field whose characteristic divides $|G|$. The group algebra is then generally nonsemisimple, and projective modules, radicals, blocks and vertices replace complete reducibility as central tools.

The modular representation ring is the Grothendieck group of finite-dimensional group representations, with relations $[V]=[U]+[W]$ for every short exact sequence $0\to U\to V\to W\to 0$, and multiplication $[V][W]=[V{\otimes }_{k}W]$ using the tensor product of group representations. The Jordan–Hölder theorem makes the classes of simple modules a free integral basis. Tensoring over a field is exact, so this multiplication is well defined. When $k$ is a splitting field for finite group representations, Brauer characters identify $\mathbb{C}{\otimes }_{\mathbb{Z}}{R}_k(G)$ with the algebra of complex class functions on p-regular elements. The splitting hypothesis is essential: ${\mathbb{F}}_2{C}_3\cong {\mathbb{F}}_2\times {\mathbb{F}}_4$ has two simple modules, although $C_3$ has three $2$-regular conjugacy classes.

Let $C_{p^n}=⟨g⟩$ and let $k$ have characteristic $p$. With $u=g-1$,Its finite-dimensional indecomposable modules areEach is a uniserial module, with radical $u{M}_r$ and one-dimensional socle $u^{r-1}{M}_r$.

If $G$ is a finite $p$-group and $k$ has characteristic $p$, then the augmentation ideal is the Jacobson radical of $kG$ and $kG/J(kG)\cong k$. Thus $kG$ is a local ring, has only the trivial simple module, and its regular module is indecomposable.

A p-modular system consists of a characteristic-zero field $K$, a discrete valuation ring $\mathcal{O}\subset K$, and its residue field $k$ of characteristic $p$. It is a splitting system for a finite group when both $K$ and $k$ split the relevant group representations.

For a p-modular system $(K,\mathcal{O},k)$, an integral form of a finite-dimensional $KG$-module $V$ is a $G$-stable finite free $\mathcal{O}$-submodule $W\subset V$ with $K{\otimes }_{\mathcal{O}}W\cong V$. Starting with a basis lattice $L$, the sum ${\sum }_{g\in G}gL$ supplies such a form: it is finitely generated and torsion-free, hence free over the discrete valuation ring $\mathcal{O}$. Reduction gives the $kG$-module $W/\pi W$, where $\pi$ is a uniformizer.

Let $W,W^{\prime }$ be choices of integral form of a group representation over a complete p-modular system. Then $I={\mathrm{Hom}}_{\mathcal{O}G}(W,W^{\prime })$ is finite free, and $K{\otimes }_{\mathcal{O}}I={\mathrm{Hom}}_{KG}(K\otimes W,K\otimes W^{\prime })$: clearing denominators proves the spanning assertion. Also ${\mathrm{Hom}}_{\mathcal{O}G}(W,\pi W^{\prime })=\pi I$. If $W$ is a projective module, applying the Hom functor to $0\to \pi W^{\prime }\to W^{\prime }\to W^{\prime }/\pi W^{\prime }\to 0$ yieldsConsequently these ordinary and modular Hom spaces have the same dimension of a vector space. Projectivity is essential: for $G=C_2$ over ${\mathbb{Z}}_2$, the trivial and sign lattices have zero Hom between them, whereas their reductions in characteristic $2$ coincide and have a one-dimensional Hom space.

A p-regular element of a finite group is an element whose order is coprime to $p$. It is also called a $p^{\prime }$-element. The complementary elements are p-singular.

Let $M$ be a representation over a splitting field $k$ of characteristic $p$. For a p-regular element $g$, the eigenvalues of $g$ on $M$ have order prime to $p$. Lift them to characteristic-zero roots of unity by the Teichmuller lift; their sum is the Brauer character value ${\chi }_M(g)$.

The Brauer character of a finite-dimensional modular representation determines its semisimplification. More strongly, the irreducible Brauer characters are linearly independent as complex-valued functions on the p-regular conjugacy classes.

Over a splitting field for finite group representations of characteristic $p$, the irreducible Brauer characters form a complex basis of the class functions on the p-regular elements. Independence is the character form of the Brauer–Nesbitt theorem. To obtain spanning, extend such a class function by zero on the p-singular classes. Ordinary irreducible characters form a basis of all class functions by character orthogonality. Restricting them to p-regular elements yields Brauer characters of reductions of an integral form of a group representation in a compatible splitting p-modular system; if needed, first extend scalars, which does not change the simple-module list under the splitting hypothesis. Each restriction is a nonnegative integral sum of simple Brauer characters by exact-sequence additivity and the Jordan–Hölder theorem. Thus these restrictions span, proving the assertion. Consequently the number of simple modules equals the number of p-regular conjugacy classes, and evaluation identifies the complexified modular representation ring with the product of one copy of $\mathbb{C}$ for each such class.

The Brauer character of a projective module over a group algebra is called a projective character. It is the restriction to p-regular elements of the ordinary character of a lifted projective lattice; that ordinary character vanishes on p-singular elements.

For class functions on the p-regular elements of a finite group,Equivalently, summing over p-regular conjugacy-class representatives $x$ gives weights $1/|C_G(x)|$.

If $S_i$ are the simple modules of a split group algebra and $P_i$ are their projective covers, then

For p-regular elements $g,h$,where $S$ ranges over the simple modules and $P_S$ is the projective cover of $S$.

A finite-dimensional algebra $A$ is symmetric when there is a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form $B:A\times A\to k$ satisfying $B(ab,c)=B(a,bc)$. Equivalently, $A\cong A^{\ast }$ as $A$-bimodules.

For a finite group $G$, the coefficient of the identity in $xy$ defines a nondegenerate symmetric associative bilinear form on $kG$. Hence $kG\cong (kG{)}^{\ast }$ as bimodules and the group algebra is a symmetric algebra.

For finite-dimensional modules over $kG$, projectivity and injectivity are equivalent. Indeed, $(kG{)}^{\ast }$ is injective because ${\mathrm{Hom}}_{kG}(-,(kG{)}^{\ast })\cong {\mathrm{Hom}}_k(-,k)$ is exact, while symmetry gives $(kG{)}^{\ast }\cong kG$.

If $P$ is an indecomposable projective $kG$-module, then its head and socle are simple and naturally isomorphic:This is the identity Nakayama permutation of the symmetric algebra $kG$.

For every simple finite-dimensional $kG$-module $S$,

Let $M$ be an indecomposable finite-dimensional $kG$-module and let $P_k$ be the projective cover of the trivial module. Then

For a subgroup $H\le G$, an $RG$-module $M$ is relatively H-projective when every $RG$-epimorphism onto $M$ that splits after restriction to $H$ already splits over $G$. Equivalently, $M$ is a direct summand of

For $\alpha \in {\mathrm{End}}_{RH}(M)$, the relative trace is

Let a finite group $G$ act on an algebra $A$ by conjugation and let $H\le G$. The transfer ideal from $H$ isThe notation records both the source subgroup and the ambient fixed-point algebra.

D. Higman's criterion says that an $RG$-module $M$ is relative projective module for $H$ exactly when there is $\alpha \in {\mathrm{End}}_{RH}(M)$ satisfying

If $[G:H]$ is invertible in $R$, every $RG$-module is relatively H-projective. An $RG$-module is then projective exactly when its restriction to $RH$ is projective.

A vertex of an indecomposable $kG$-module is a subgroup minimal among those for which the module is relatively projective. Vertices exist, form one conjugacy class, and are p-groups when $k$ has characteristic $p$. The vertices of the trivial module are the Sylow p-subgroups.

A group algebra $kG$ has finite representation type when it has only finitely many isomorphism classes of finite-dimensional indecomposable modules.

If $k$ has characteristic $p$, then $kG$ has finite representation type exactly when a Sylow p-subgroup of $G$ is cyclic. Restriction and induction reduce the property to the Sylow subgroup; a cyclic p-group has the finitely many indecomposables $k[u]/(u^r)$, while a noncyclic p-group has a quotient $C_p\times C_p$ and hence infinitely many indecomposables.

A simple projective module over a split modular group algebra lies in a block of defect zero. It lifts uniquely to an ordinary irreducible character whose degree is divisible by the full p-part of the group order.

A block of a finite group algebra is an indecomposable two-sided ideal $RGe$ determined by a primitive central idempotent $e$. An $RG$-module $M$ lies in this block when $eM=M$.

Over a field of characteristic three, the group algebra $A=k{S}_3$ has a single block of an Artinian algebra. Put $r=(123)$, $s=(12)$ and $a=r-1$. Then $a^3=0$, $sas=-a+a^2$, and $J(A)=aA$: the latter is a nilpotent ideal, with semisimple ring quotient $k{C}_2$. The center of an associative algebra is $k1\oplus k{a}^2\oplus k{a}^{2}s$, whose last two summands form a square-zero ideal. A central idempotent $d1+n$ satisfies $d^2=d$ and $(2d-1)n=0$, hence is zero or one. Thus no nontrivial central block decomposition exists.

With $s=(12)$, the idempotents $e_{\pm }=(1\pm s)/2$ split the right regular module into two three-dimensional projective modules. Their tops are respectively the trivial representation and sign representation. The nilpotent ideal $J(k{S}_3)$ ensures that any nonzero direct summand has nonzero top, so the one-dimensional tops make these projective modules indecomposable. Their successive radical series of a module factors are trivial, sign, trivial and sign, trivial, sign. This decomposition concerns right modules; the block of S3 in characteristic three remains a single algebra.

Over a splitting field for finite group representations of characteristic $2$, put $a=(123)$. The block of a group algebra idempotents of $k{S}_3$ are $b_0=1+a+a^2$ and $b_1=a+a^2$. Their block algebras are $b_{0}k{S}_3\cong k{C}_2$ and $b_{1}k{S}_3\cong M_2(k)$, with a defect group of a block given by $C_2$ and $1$, respectively. The first is a local ring; for the second, the representation $a\mapsto \mathrm{diag}(\omega ,{\omega }^2)$, $(12)\mapsto \left(\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right)$ generates the full matrix algebra. The Cartan matrix of a group algebra is $\mathrm{diag}(2,1)$, and the ordinary trivial, sign, and two-dimensional characters give decomposition matrix $\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 1& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right)$.

A defect group of a block idempotent $e$ is a maximal p-subgroup $D$ for which the Brauer image ${\mathrm{Br}}_D(e)$ is nonzero. Equivalently, the vertices of the block algebra as an $R[G\times G]$-module are the diagonal subgroups $\Delta D$ for the defect groups $D$. All defect groups of a block are conjugate.

In characteristic $2$, a Sylow subgroup $P$ of $A_5$ is a Klein four-group, and its normalizer is $A_4$. Since $k{A}_4$ has one block, Brauer first main theorem gives a unique block of $k{A}_5$ with defect $P$. No order-two subgroup $D$ can be a defect group of a block: both $C_{A_5}(D)$ and $C_{A_5}(P)$ equal $P$, so the Brauer morphisms of a central block idempotent at $D$ and at $P$ are equal. A nonzero image is $1$, since a group algebra of a p-group in characteristic p is local, and consequently $D$ is not maximal among subgroups with nonzero Brauer image.

For a $p$-subgroup $D$ of a finite group $G$, set $I_D={\mathrm{Tr}}_D^G((kG{)}^D)$, a transfer ideal of conjugation-fixed elements in $Z(kG)$. A block of a group algebra idempotent $b$ lies in $I_D$ if and only if a defect group of a block of $b$ is conjugate to a subgroup of $D$. In particular, defect groups can equivalently be defined as minimal subgroups $D$ with $b\in I_D$.

Here is a proof using the Brauer morphism. A subgroup of smallest order with $b\in I_D$ exists, since a Sylow subgroup $P$ gives $b={\mathrm{Tr}}_P^G(b/[G:P])$. Write $b={\mathrm{Tr}}_D^G(a)$ and replace $a$ by $ba$. If ${\mathrm{Br}}_D(b)=0$, then $ba$ belongs to the kernel of the Brauer morphism, which is the sum of proper-subgroup relative traces. Hence $b\in {\sum }_{Q<D}{I}_Q$. The algebra $bZ(kG)$ is a commutative Artinian ring and a local ring, so multiplying this equality by $b$ forces some ideal $b{I}_Q$ to contain its identity $b$. This contradicts minimality. On the other hand, ${\mathrm{Br}}_E(I_D)=0$ unless $E$ is conjugate into $D$: the $E$-action on $G/D$ has no fixed coset otherwise, and nonfixed orbit sizes vanish in characteristic $p$. Thus these minimal subgroups are precisely the maximal subgroups with nonzero Brauer image. They are all conjugate. Trace transitivity proves the stated criterion for larger $D$.

For a p-subgroup $D\le G$, let $D$ act on $kG$ by conjugation. The Brauer morphism is the algebra homomorphism